Threats to Ocean Health - 500 million people depend on fisheries for their food and income (fishing, tourism), 90% of which are in developing countries. Climate change is altering the distribution and productivity of species, food webs and biological processes....
Forest Loss - Over 1.6 billion people depend on forests and over 90% of these are the poorest in societies. - Forests, like other ecosystems are essential for human well being, through the ‘services’ they provide. - They are also home to 80% of the world’s...
- The global drive to reduce carbon emissions and to decouple fossil fuels from economic growth must involve increasing reliance on alternative sources of ‘clean’ energy. - Renewable and recyclable energy sources are part of the multi-energy approach to energy...
Fossil Fuel Supply and Demand - Uneven distribution of reserves - Uneven distribution of demand - Energy pathways are vital and of extreme importance Energy Pathways As a result of the mismatches that exist in production and consumption of fossil fuels, there is a...
Energy Security Energy security refers to the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price. The following four aspects of energy security must be stressed: - It is usually elevated at a NATIONAL LEVEL; so countries are either energy secure or...
The Natural Greenhouse Effect - A natural process that warms the Earth’s surface. - When the Sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s atmosphere, some of it is reflected back into space and the rest is absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases, such as water vapour, carbon...
The Biological Carbon Pump - One part of the carbon cycle moves faster - biological carbon pump – at the surface of the ocean, there’s always an exchange of carbon. - The ocean’s surface layer contains tiny phytoplankton, which have shells and sequester carbon dioxide...
The Geological Carbon Cycle - Carbon regulates the climate, making it warm enough to survive. - Stores can be terrestrial, oceanic or atmospheric. - Flux refers to the movement of carbon between stores, creating cycles and feedback. The geological carbon cycle is a...
The Spectrum of management Population densities in an area will always affect the level of protection that can be afforded – Antarctica vs. Lake District for example. Stakeholders (players) help conserve and protect landscapes (e.g. Friends of the Lake District) and...
Natural Threats Avalanches An avalanche is a sudden downhill movement of snow. Two types- ‘Loose snow’ and ‘Slab avalanches’. A Slab avalanche is the most dangerous form of movement they can be caused by: • Heavy snowfall • Deforestation, making the slopes less stable...
Wilderness There are two types of wilderness they consist of: active and relict landscapes, which can be characterised by the following: Active- • Tend to be remote regions • Consist of a harsh physical environment • Are sparsely populated (indigenous populations)....
Water Movement within the Glacier System - Glacier hydrology is the study of the flow of water through glaciers. - Water running on the surface of the glacier can disappear through cracks and holes in the glaciers and powerful rivers can later emerge from the glacier...
Glacial Deposition Processes There are two principle depositional processes: Lodgement Occurs beneath the ice mass when subglacial debris, being carried, becomes ‘lodged’ or stuck on the glacier bed. It occurs when friction is greater than the drag force of the...
Erosional Processes There are two main erosional processes that you need to be able to explain and then link to different landforms: Abrasion – when sub-glacial basal ice rubs against the bedrock and valley sides. This causes the wearing away of the landscape as the...
Glacial Erosion Processes There are two types of glacial erosion: Abrasion Occurs when rocks and stones become embedded in the base and sides of the glacier. These are then rubbed against the bedrock (at the bottom of the glacier) and rock faces (at the sides of the...
Glacial Movement Glacier movement is not constant over time, or even through the glacier itself. Factors Affecting Rate of Movement: Thickness: a glacier moves because pressure generated by its own weight causes it to deform and/or slide, consequently, thick glaciers...
Formation of Glaciers - Snow accumulates and compacts into an upland nivation hollow. - Over 3-4yrs, water is squeezed out of the ice, percolates down and refreezes onto the bottom of the glacier (firn/nevé). - Gravity and the weight of the ice above will gradually...
The Cryosphere • Consists of ice sheets and glaciers, combined with sea ice • Parts of Earth’s crust and atmosphere subject to temperatures below 0 degrees C for at least part of the year Ice Coverage • Ice cover at Pleistocene maximum was more than 3X greater than...
Periglacial Environments: a cold climate, typically near glacial regions. The periglacial environment is a cold climate, often marginal to (next to) the glacial environment, and is subject to intense cycles of freezing and thawing Permafrost Environments: where the...
Managing water supplies will require action at a variety of levels. Likely actions include: Hard engineering projects to increase water storage and transfer. Restoration of lost water supplies. Water conservation in urban areas, such as rainwater harvesting and water...
case study: china’s south north transfer project Project began in 2003 and involves building 3 canals to run across the eastern, middle and western parts of China and link the country’s 4 main rivers. Benefits Costs § Transfer 44.8 billion m3 per...
Glacier - A slowly moving mass or river of ice formed by the accumulation and compaction of snow on mountains or near the poles. Ice Cap - Mass that covers less than 50,000 km² of land area (usually covering a highland area). E.g Iceland Ice Sheet - Mass of glacier...
Often when countries compete for water resources international agreements and treaties have to be drawn up on how best to manage shared water supplies. As water resources become more significant, new treaties have to be negotiated using water diplomacy. Unfortunately,...
Explain trends in water demand Explore how supply might be affected by climate change Examine the role of different players in water supply and their conflicting aims Assess a range of solutions such as water conservation, harvesting, restoration and the costs and...
By 2025, water withdrawal is projected to reach 5,235km3 per year, which is to impact on food production, human welfare and the environmental. Any predictions are tentative as they involve uncertain factors such as climate change. three alternative futures Scenario...
Human activity can have a negative effect on the water environment: Sewage disposal in developing countries is expected to cause 135 million deaths by 2020. In the UK we add 1,400 million litres of sewage to our rivers daily although most of it has been treated...
Water insecurity: not having access to sufficient, safe water. There are 2.3 billion people without access to clean water, many live in 20 or so developing countries classified as ‘water scarce’. Problems of water insecurity are related to: Availability – having a...
Established in 2002 and uses 5 parameters: Resources – the quantity of surface and groundwater per person, and its Access – the time and distance involved in obtaining sufficient and safe Capacity – how well the community manages its Use – how economically water is...
Know how water supply problems can have serious implications for human health. Investigate conflicts where several users put demands on the same water supply. Use a case study to explore a transboundary supply issue. Examine the risks of attempting to overcome supply...
Secure water supplies are needed to support irrigation and food production, manufacturing and energy generation. However, the use of water resources can lead to various problems. E.g. the depletion of underground aquifers and salinization of the soil. case study: the...
Water conflicts occur when the demand for water overtakes the supply and several stakeholders wish to use the same resource. Conflict is more likely where developing countries are involved as water is vital to feed their growing populations and promote industrial...
Oceanic ridges form the longest continuous uplifted feature on the surface of the Earth, having a total combined length of over 60,000km. Where two plates pull apart there is a weaker zone in the crust and increase in heat near the surface. The hotter, expanded crust...
World’s oceans hold approx. 1,386 million km3 of water. Accounts for 97.5% of global water source. Only 2.5% of store is available as fresh water. Almost 80% of freshwater is trapped in ice, snow, and permafrost. Remaining 20% of freshwater is groundwater. Only 1%...
Conservative margins occur when two plates move parallel or nearly parallel to each other these margins are said to be conservative because neither plate is subducted nor there is no volcanic activity. The constant stick slip motion of the plates results in frequent...
Water stress: Lack of reliable, cost effective water supplies in a region. Water stress occurs when demand for water exceeds the amount available during a certain period, or when poor quality restricts its use. Therefore, when a country’s water consumption is more...
The ocean trenches are narrow depressions in the sea. These trenches form the deepest points in the ocean and are the lowest points on earth. Ocean Trenches are formed at a place of plate boundary which is known as the subduction zone. It experiences frequent...
Convection currents in the asthenosphere cause continental crust to dome upwards. The upward pressure causes the crust to crack leaving an unsupported middle section. The unsupported section collapses forming a rift valley with steep stacks. If the convection currents...
The middle of the Pacific Ocean is the volcanic Hawaiian Islands that aren’t connected with any plate boundary normally associated with plate margins. The volcanoes are caused by a localised hotspot within the Pacific Plate. The concentrations of radioactive elements...
Volcano, an extrusive feature formed from the accumulation of erupting lava and/or volcanic ash. Volcanoes are found at both constructive and destructive margins and the distribution follows the pattern of the plate boundaries. Volcanoes at destructive margins erupt...
Geysers A geyser is a rare kind of hot spring that is under pressure and when it erupts it sends jets of water and steam into the air. They are a tube-like hole in the ground that runs deep into the crust in which they are filled with water. Water in the lower part of...
Batholith:A Batholith is when magma forces its way into the crust but becomes trapped and solidifies into rock, it is a large mass of intrusive igneous rock believed to have solidified deep within the earth. When it cools it forms granite and this can be exposed due...
Primary Effects Lava flows – although lava is the greatest perceived threat it rarely moves fast enough to kill people before they are evacuated. However, lava flows that cannot be diverted can cause damage. Pyroclastic flow – during and after the initial eruption gas...
Social Around 10 million airline passengers affected and stranded abroad Residents in the volcano shadow were covered in ash and may have evacuated Sports games across the globe had to be cancelled or postponed 20 farms were destroyed by the flooding or ash The 150m...
Drainage density: The density of rivers and streams in each area. Discharge: The rate of water flow in a river. Impermeable: Rock or soil which will not transmit water. River regime: The variation in annual river discharge. Aquifer: underground porous rock which will...
Short Term On the morning of the 13th July 2001, magma pushed up through one of Etna’s vents. This caused the south side of the volcano to bulge and caused a series of earthquakes. Lava bubbled up to the surface in the crater of the volcano, and also at several...
This submerged mountain range, which extends from the Arctic Ocean to beyond the southern tip of Africa, is but one segment of the global mid-ocean ridge system that encircles the Earth. The rate of spreading along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge averages about 2.5 centimetres...
Primary and Secondary Effects Lahars killed 70% of Armero’s population 45km away. Lahars were as much as 40m thick and travelled at 50km per hour. Most killed by suffocation as lahars up to 8m buried them. Lahars killed 1,800 people in Chinchina. 3400 ha of...
A theoretical model of the formation of magnetic striping. New oceanic crust forming continuously at the crest of the mid-ocean ridge cools and becomes increasingly older as it moves away from the ridge crest with seafloor spreading. Early in the 20th century,...
316,000 people were killed, and 1 million people were made homeless. 300,000 people injured. 3 million people were affected by the earthquake. 250,000 homes and 30,000 other buildings, including the president’s palace and 60% of government buildings were either...
Oceanic crust is denser than continental crust, when plates collide the oceanic crust is subducted into the upper mantle, asthenosphere. Subduction creates several features characteristic of destructive margins. As the ocean crust descends, friction with the overlying...
Effects Buildings collapsed they were built on a blind thrust fault, so land buckled. 57 people died. Infrastructure ruined, extensive damage to parking structures/freeway overpasses. Most damage occurred in multi-story frame blocks. Numerous fires due to broken gas...
Where two pieces of oceanic crust on different plates collide, one is subducted beneath the other. The crust that is subducted may be marginally denser of the two plates or is the one which is moving more quickly. These form characteristically curving lines of new...
A tsunami is a giant sea wave caused by the large-scale displacement of water. Tsunamis are triggered by four events: Earthquake, landslide, volcanic eruptions (Krakatau 1883) and meteorites. In all four cases the tsunami is triggered by the displacement of...
Two continental crusts collide and as neither can sink, they are forced up into Fold Mountains. The Indian plate collided with the Eurasian plate forming the Himalayas. The Himalayas are constantly changing, because these highly folded and faulted regions do not...
Aquifer: underground porous rock which will hold groundwater and let it through. Ground water: all water found under the surface of the ground which is not chemically combined with any minerals present, but not including underground streams. Irrigation: the supply of...
Past Superpowers Existing Superpowers Emerging Superpowers Russia/ USSR British Empire USA Roman Empire USA- hegemon (ruling state) Germany EU BRICS South Korea Mexico United Arab Emirates Measures of Power Oil rich, manufacturing base, IT services,...
Commodity Traders · Commodity traders in London and New York decide the price of cocoa and buy for large companies like Cadbury’s · Buyers trade in future markets for best price · Other countries also produce cocoa, so buyers will go to the...
Global economic and political power is controlled by a small number of players in the form of inter-governmental organizations (IGOs). UN - Political Prevents war and decides on international disputes and developed wide range of specialist agencies. NATO -...
Positive Negative Environmental · Increased profits could lead to research in greener technology · Pollution from manufacturing · Deforestation in Brazil due to cattle ranching demand in western markets and China · Rural to urban...
Africa Cannot experience growth without political stability which contributes to 2% of global trade (2007). Only trade is oil and minerals extracting, not manufacturing. Africa needs trade to allow them to own their own resources and trade equally. 7% growth vital to...
Diet Halal meat in Islam as well as USA and EU have all food. Women’s Rights Controlled in Islamic world in terms of clothing and driving. One child policy in China. Censorship and Control Controlled press in China and Islamic world. Religion Closer links...
Geomorphology– the study of landforms of the earth’s surface Plate tectonics– a theory explaining the structure of the earth’s crust and many associated phenomena as resulting from the interaction of the rigid lithosphere. Geomorphological hazard– an event causing...
Modernisation Theory A theory proposed to explain the dominance of the British Empire and the USA according to their history of industrial modernization. It relates to five different stages of economic development. Assumes all countries follow the same development...
Globalisation and Migration Globalisation has led to extensive movements of capital, goods and people which has impacted migrations rates and traditional definitions of sovereignty. International migration changes the ethnic composition of populations which, although...
Large, youthful population with the possibility to grow. World class industry (quaternary) - IT. Poor infrastructure. The Impacts on the Old Cores Ageing populations are an issue in the EU, Japan, Russia and China. In contrast, USA, Brazil and India have much more...
Nation States National sovereignty is the concept of independent nations having an organised government who have the right to make laws and regulations without other nations interfering. National sovereignty states vary in their ethnic, cultural and linguistic unity...
The Rise of BRIC’s BRICs -Brazil, Russia, India and China. They are all emerging superpowers, and some argue that China is already a superpower. The economic growth includes the benefits of reducing the number of people living in poverty, an increase in the size of...
Global Organisations The United Nations was the first post-war IGO to be established and has grown in importance since. It has a role in global governance and peacekeeping, but members of the Security Council have different geopolitical visions. The UN tries to ensure...
National Identity National identity is the sense of a nation as a cohesive whole, represented by distinctive traditions, cultures and language. Each nation has an identity unique to them. Nationalism remains a powerful force which is reinforced through education,...
Economics Changes to economies and societies occur due to local, national and global processes such as the movement of people, capital, information and resources. An abundance of these factors can make places become economically wealthy whilst other places are...
Economic and Social Inequalities Successful regions, such as the San Francisco Bay area, have high rates of employment, inward migration being both internal and international and low levels of multiple deprivation. This, alongside high property prices and skills...
The Role of UK Government Policies By investing in infrastructure, such as high-speed rails and airport developments, UK governments can maintain growth and improve accessibility to regenerate regions. It is often the role of national governments to facilitate...
Measuring Success The success of economic regeneration can be assessed using measures of: Income – Poverty. Employment Different areas can then be compared by looking at the variations within each measure. This will help understand which regeneration project...
What is a Super Power? Superpowers are states or organisations with a dominant position in the international system. They can influence events in their own interests and project power on a worldwide scale to protect their interests. Attributes of a Superpower...
USSR Industrial strength, 2nd largest economy, military strength and harsh authoritarian regime to increase economic production. USA World’s largest economy and had resources such as steel production, oil fields, coalfields, grain and arable areas and east west...
The Collapse of the USSR (1991) They used a command style of government through the idea of communism. This was because in 1987 there was the development of perestroika and glasnost. PERESTROIKA -this is relaxed economic controls allowing businesses to sell their...
There was an 80% decline in investment in Russia’s economy. As the protection of the USSR was removed, Russia was exposed to higher prices because of inflation. There was mass unemployment and so reduction in the living standards. As disparity grew between the lowest...
Brain drain because of emigration of young Russians looking for unemployment overseas. Fall in birth rates as Russia’s population has declined steadily since 1995. Decline in government revenue resulted in cuts in welfare provision. There was no longer free health...
International Laws and Agreements The United Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a framework for foreign policies to explain economic and military intervention but not all states have signed the Declaration. It states the basic rights and fundamental freedoms to...
Significant reserves of oil and gas is adding to global power. Developed export partnerships to the east and west. Russia depends on Europe buying 80% of oil exports, but USA is a keen buyer and China’s demand for oil is growing. Power explained when in 2006 Russia...
Forms of Geopolitical Intervention Interventionism is a broad term for the activity undertaken by a state to manipulate the economy, society and/or the political standing of another nation. Military intervention involves the deliberate act of a nation introducing its...
· Why is there conflict between Russia and Ukraine? Ukraine aims for a pro-European and anti-Russian nation with a government that is focused on membership with NATO and EU. In the USSR, countries received cheap gas but because the USSR is now broken up and so...
Measuring the Success of Geopolitical Intervention To measure success, a wide range of variables need to be considered. These include improvements in: Health: More citizens will be vaccinated than before and infant mortality would have declined. Life Expectancy: This...
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) The focus of the IMF is to stabilise currencies and it was first brought about following the economic crisis of the Depression and World War II. Initially, the wealthiest countries created a fund that could be used to loan money...
Sea wall- reflects waves back out to sea, preventing erosion and flooding, expensive creates a strong backwash which erodes under the wall. Revetment- slanted structures built at the foot of cliffs; waves break against them which reduces their power, expensive to...
Beach nourishment- sand and shingle are added to beaches from elsewhere to create wider beaches to reduce erosion of cliffs. Beach stabilisation- reducing the slope angle and planting vegetation, or by sticking stakes and old tree trunks in the beach to stabilise the...
Strategies used shouldn't cause too much damage to the environmentor to people's homes and livelihoods and shouldn't cost too much. Hard engineering is often expensive,and it disrupts natural processes. Soft engineering schemes tend to be cheaperand require less...
Population Structures Change is driven by local, national and global processes which affect the demographic and cultures of local places. These processes include the movement of people, capital, information and resources and make places demographically and culturally...
Urban Places Perception of places is dependent on lived experience and understanding of the area. During industrialisation, urban places were perceived as being dangerous and threatening Victorian London, as they were the hotspots of crime, prostitution and...
Abrasion- rock and sediment smash and grind against rocks and cliffs, breaking bits off and smoothing surfaces. Hydraulic action- air in cracks in cliffs is compressed when waves crash in. The pressure exerted by the compressed air break off pieces of rock....
Culture and Society in the UK Significant internal movement of people had created uneven demographic and cultural patterns. For instance, London is highly diverse with a mix of British, Indian, African, Chinese and Caribbean cultures. Culture and society have changed...
The energyprovided by waves, tides and currents transports eroded material. There are four transportational processes: Traction- very big rocks/boulders are rolled along the sea bed by the force of the water. Saltation- pebbles and gravel are bounced along the sea bed...
Measuring Management Techniques The success of economic management can be assessed using measures of: Income and employment. Different areas can then be compared by looking at the variations within each measure. This will track what management techniques are in place...
Deposition- when material being transported is dropped on the coast. Marine deposition- when sediment carried by seawater is deposited. Aeolian deposition- when sediment carried by wind is deposited. Happens when the sediment loadexceeds the ability of the water or...
Globalisation is the process by which businesses or other organisations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale. Another definition defines globalisation as the growing economic interdependence of countries worldwide through...
Sub-aerial weatheringthe gradual break down of rock by agents such as ice, salt, plant roots and acids. Weathering weakens cliffs and makes them more vulnerable to Salt Weathering Caused by saline water. Enters pores/cracks at high tide. Tide goes out, rocks...
Those who make decisions to invest and manufacture overseas, and who help to determine consumer tastes and opinions, come mainly from North America, Europe, and East Asia, as well as oil-rich billionaire investors from Russia, Nigeria, and Saudi Arabia. China, India,...
Cliffs and Wave-cut Platforms Cliffs- form as the sea erodes the land. They retreat due to the action of waves and weathering. Weathering and wave erosion cause a notch to form at the high-water mark - a cave is formed. Rock above becomes unstable and collapses....
During colonial times, when it was ruled by Britain, Ghana was the world's largest producer of coca. The British government set the price that Ghanaian farmers would receive. Since independence in 1957, three factors now dictate global cocoa prices. Commodity traders....