Division of Labour: The role division between men and women may have evolved to enhance the groups reproductive success. If women hunted rather than played the domestic role, reproduction chances would be reduced. Women can also aid the avoidance of starvation by...
Notes
The Biosocial Approach to Gender Development
The Biosocial Theory Money and Ehrhardt 1972 In their book ‘man and woman, boy and girl’ they set out their theory that once a biological male or female is born, social labelling and differential treatment interact with biological factors (such as exposure to...
Gender Dysphoria
Gender Dysphoria is also known as gender identity disorder. It is characterised by a mismatch between biological appearance and the way they feel about their gender. People with gender Dysphoria: Are unambiguously male or female in appearance but are uncomfortable...
Psychological Explanations of Gender Development
Evaluation: There are actual implications for the socially sensitive research. Research on gender Dysphoria has potential social consequences for those represented by the research. However, it needs to be considered that they may be better off with the research...
Kohlberg’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Basic Assumptions of Kohlberg’s (1966) Gender Constancy Theory. The way we think (cognitive development) changed as the result of changes in the brain due to biological maturation. Concepts of gender are only acquired when a child is cognitively ‘ready’ to acquire...
Social Influences on Gender Roles
Social Learning Theory Bandura (1991) Indirect Reinforcement: children observe the behaviour of others and learn the consequences of the behaviour (vicarious reinforcement). This information is stored as an expectancy of future outcome. Learning such behaviours...
Cultural Influences on Gender Roles
Cultural Similarities Cross-cultural studies of gender show that every society has some divison of labour and behaviour by gender. (Munroe and Munroe 1975). For example, food preparation and childcare is predominately a female role, girls are socialised more towards...
Theories of Cognitive Development, Including Piaget and Vygotsky
Piaget The idea that we are born with basic skills to allow for cognitive development that grow as we become older. He believed that the child underwent two processes: Accommodation- When a schema is altered in order to fit in new information i.e. learning that birds...
Applications of Cognitive Development Theories to Education
Piaget Education Application Useful to know what stage of cognitive development a child is in so that tasks appropriate to learning are set and stage specific instructions are given. └->only the material that a child is ready to learn is taught. Burns & Silbey-...
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Understanding
Moral understanding is identified by presenting a child with a moral dilemma and asking them what they would do in that situation. Kohlberg’s Stage Theory: Level 1- Own needs need to be met Stage 1- Punishment and Obedience orientation-> Based on punishment, if...
Development of the Child’s Sense of Self, Including Theory of Mind
9-12 Months- Relationship between actions and reactions and what effect they have. 15-18 Months- Begins to recognise that it is physically different to others, recognise themselves. 2-6 Years- Realise that they are in full control of their physically and cognitive...
Holism and Reductionism
Holism People/behaviour should be studied as a whole system Gestalt psychologists: the whole is greater than the sum of its parts Breaking up behaviour/experience is inappropriate as they can only be understood by analysing the person/behaviour as a whole View shared...
Outline and Evaluate Cultural Influences on Gender Development.
Cross cultural research explains the causes of gender roles and how they differ between cultures. If roles are similar in different cultures it suggests a biological explanation. However, if they vary between cultures, it suggests that gender roles are influences more...
Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches
Idiographic approach Study of unique experience Aims to describe nature of the individual People studied as unique entities with their own subjective experiences/motivators/values No attempt to compare to a larger group/standard/norm Qualitative research methods Case...
Introduction and Biological Influences on Gender Development
Sex: male/ female biological sex Gender: -an ambiguous term but usually means a sense of masculinity or femininity - Also known as gender identity - Also encompasses psychological characteristics and gender role behaviours associated with being male or female...
Cultural Bias
Psychology claims to unearth universal truths but in reality, findings may only apply to the particular groups who were studied Wrongly assumed that western findings could be applied all over the world g. conformity (Asch) and obedience (Milgram) produced different...
Ethical Implications of Research Studies/theory
Ethical implications Ethical issues are due to conflict between: Psychology’s need for valid/valuable research Preserving rights/dignity of participants Wider ethical implications are hard to predict Researchers control methods/how the treat participants Less...
Discuss Culture Bias in Psychology. (16 Marks)
AO1 Culture bias is the tendency to judge all people in terms of your own cultural assumptions. This distorts or biases your judgement. An example of culture bias can be seen in Ainsworth’s strange situation whereby 106 middle-class American infants were observed in...
Discuss Free Will & Determinism in Psychology (16 Marks)
AO1 Determinism is the view that an individual's behaviour is controlled by either internal or external forces acting upon the individual. There are different types of determinism namely environmental, biological and psychodynamic determinism. Biological determinism...
Describe & Evaluate the Nature-nurture Debate in Psychology (16 Marks)
AO1 The nature vs. nurture debate within psychology is the extent to which we are a product of biological or genetic innate factors, nature, or if our behaviour is a product of environmental influences. An example of the influence of nature is genetic explanations...
Discuss Holism and Reductionism in Psychology (16 Marks)
AO1 Reductionism refers to an approach that breaks complex phenomena into more simple components. It also implies that this process is desirable because complex phenomena are best understood in terms of a simpler level of explanation. Psychologists are drawn to...
Discuss Idiographic and Nomothetic Approaches to Psychological Investigation (16 Marks)
AO1 The idiographic approach focuses on individuals and emphasises uniqueness favouring qualitative methods in research. The idiographic approach is qualitative as the focus is on gaining insights into human behaviour by studying unique individuals in depth as opposed...
Explain the Role of Genes and Hormones in Gender Development
One biological influence on gender is the role of genes in gender development. Everybody has 23 pairs of chromosomes in their body which contain genes. Each of these chromosomes carries hundreds of genes containing instructions about physical and behavioural...
Outline and Evaluate the Evolutionary Explanation of Gender Roles
The evolutionary explanation of gender states that humans evolved to maximise the likelihood that individuals will pass on their genes to future generations. Males and females therefore developed optimal mating strategies to promote the conception, birth and survival...
Outline and Evaluate the Biosocial Approach
The biosocial approach refers to theories that compare both the biological and social explanations such as Money and Ehrhardt theory and social role theory. The biosocial approach to gender development emphasises that it is the interaction of both nature and nurture...
Outline and Evaluate Research Into Gender Dysphoria.
Gender Dysphoria is a condition in which people are uncomfortable with the gender to which they are assigned. In the extreme, this can lead to transsexualism, a desire to change gender. Gender dysphoria is more common in boys, but occurs across both sexes. One...
Outline and Evaluate Kolhberg’s Theory
Any cognitive developmental theory is based on the idea that children have to have reached a certain level of cognitive development before they can appreciate certain concepts, such as what it means to be a boy or girl, and the full implications of this. KOHLBERG...
Free Will and Determinism
Free will is the idea that we are self-determining Humans are free to choose thoughts/actions Biological/environmental influences on behaviour but we can reject them Behaviour has no cause/is unpredictable View of the humanistic approach Determinism: behaviour is...
Discuss the Gender Schema Theory.
Gender schema theory MARTIN AND HALVERSON’S alternative to the cognitive-development approach proposed by Kohlberg. They argue that the process of acquiring gender-relevant information happens before gender consistency is achieved. They claim that basic gender...
The Nature-nurture Debate
Nature: behaviour is the product of innate biological/genetic factors Result of heredity Genetic transmission of mental/physical characteristics from one generation to another Heritability coefficient: number 0-1, extent to which characteristic has a genetic basis g....
Discuss the Social Influences in Gender Roles
BANDURA renamed social learning theory as social cognitive theory emphasis the role of cognitive factors in learning. In this theory the source of information is social and what is learned is a cognition, something stored in the mind. BANDURA proposed that gender...
Data Handling and Analysis
Quantitative data Data in numerical form which can be put into categories, or in rank order, or interval data, and is used to make graphs and tables of raw data - e.g. correlations, experiments, closed questions easily summarised into graphs or statistics = identify...
Measures of Central Tendency:
Mode Most common or most frequent value (used with nominal data) + Easy to calculate + Can be used with nominal data - Doesn’t tell us anything except which thing happens most - Multimodel distributions can be uninformative Median Middle number when data is in rank...
Measures of Dispersion or Spread of Data
Range The difference between the highest and lowest values + Easy to calculate - Affected by extreme values Standard Deviation The average distribution that each piece of data is from the mean for the group + Takes each piece of data into account so very sensitive +...
Presentation of Quantitative Data
Bar charts Used to represent data which is divided into categories (discrete data) e.g. yes or no Line graphs Used to represent data in numerical form (continuous data) e.g. the age of a person Histograms Represent continuous data. Bars represent each score rather...
3 Types of Measurement:
Nominal level: category data e.g. yes/no Ordinal level: data that is a score or ranked on a scale e.g. 1st 2nd Interval data: standard unit of measurement e.g. seconds, KG Why are statistical tests important? Tell us the probability of the results being due to chance...
Type I and Type II Errors
The significance level is 5% or 0.05 to provide a good balance between being too strict or lenient about whether the results of research are significant OTHER THAN WHEN GIVEN OTHERWISE. However, 0.05 gives best chance of avoiding these 2 errors Type I – false...
Assessing Which Statistical Test to Choose:
1.) What kind of data do I have? Nominal level (non-parametric): category data e.g. yes/no Ordinal level(non-parametric): data that is a score or ranked e.g. 1st 2nd Interval data (parametric)– standard unit of measurement e.g. seconds, KG Criteria of parametric data...
Structure of long answer Q’s: Write an informed consent form
Dear Participant, Thank you for agreeing to take part in a study on the effect (AIM) You will be asked to do this and that (PROCEDURE) There will be medical support provided throughout if you need it and you can withdraw at any time All data will be treated with...
Write a Debrief
start with ‘dear participant’ thank you for taking part in the study disclose the full aim of the study refer to previous research if given in Q remind pt of right to withdraw data reassure pts of confidentiality (no personal data published) state researchers contact...
Write Standardised Instructions
explain why or how to conduct a pilot study use a methods section (inc subheadings: design, procedure, pts, materials) write a results section (inc table of results, graph, selection of statistical test) evaluate the limitations of a study and make suggestions for...
Gender and Culture in Psychology: Gender Bias
Explain what is meant by the terms ‘universality’ and ‘bias’ in relation to gender [4 marks] Universality refers to any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing. The...
Ethics
The rights and wrong about how we conduct research, which is governed by ethical guidelines set by BPS (British Psychological Society) Fully informed consent Participants should have knowledge of aims + procedures of research so they can decide if they want to be...
Gender and Culture in Psychology: Cultural Bias
In relation to culture in psychology, explain what is meant by the terms ‘bias’ and ‘universality’ [4 marks] Universality refers to any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing....
Reliability
A measure of consistency and the ability to repeat experiment and get similar results on another occasion Internal reliability: Whether a measure is consistent within itself when tested – eg a questionnaire generating similar results with all participants. Tested...
Ethical Implications of Research Studies and Theory
With reference to either research studies or theories, explain what is meant by ‘ethical implications’ [3 marks] Ethical implications are the impact that psychological research may have at a societal level, in terms of influencing public policy and/or the way in which...
Validity
How true a study or theory is an explanation of behaviour Internal validity: Whether the research was designed ‘well’. Research with high internal validity, must be designed very carefully. Can be lowered through the interference of extraneous variables. Face...
Gender Bias
Psychologists seek universality but bias may be inevitable Social/historical contexts that they live in Gender bias: psychological theory/research may not accurately represent the experience/behaviour of men and women Alpha bias exaggerates differences,...
Features of Science
Objectivity When the researcher is not being affected by their own expectations, keeping a distance from it. How to ensure objectivity: Data should be collected systematically under controlled conditions e.g. lab Research method should be fully standardised so less...
Features of a Scientific Report
TITLE: normally phrased as a question. Refers to the aim ABSTRACT: brief summary of aims and hypotheses, previous research, results, methods and conclusion. 150-200 words. Written at the end but on front page INTRODUCTION: includes past research (theory and studies)...
Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony: Misleading Information
- The eyewitness testimony is the evidence provided in court by a person who witnesses a crime, with a view to identifying the perpetrator of the crime - Eyewitness testimonies are a critical role in criminal investigations but there's evidence to say that they are...
Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony: Anxiety
- Stressful situations create anxiety, crimes and accidents are no exception - Anxiety is a state of emotional and physical arousal. - The emotions include having worried thoughts and feelings of tension whilst physical changes include an increased heart rate and...
Improving the Accuracy of Eyewitness Testimony
- Although eyewitness testimony may lack accuracy EWT is still vital to the police and courts - So, psychologists have been looking into how to improve EWT, one of the ways being the cognitive interview THE COGNITIVE INTERVIEW - Fisher and Geiselman (1992) argued that...
Research Methods
Aim: An intention of investigation Hypothesis: A predictive, operationalised statements of expected outcome Null hypothesis: Predicts IV has no effect on DV Alternative hypothesis: Predicts that there will be a significant effect on DV because of the IV Directional...
Types of Variables
Dependent variable (DV) = measured Independent variable (IV) = manipulated Controlled variable (CV) = kept constant Extraneous variable (EV) = anything other than the IV that could affect the DV – individual differences Confounding variable = EVs have that already...
Experiments
Choice of experiment is dependent on: - How much control we have over IV - How much control we have over extraneous variables - Decision between reliability OR validity In an experiment: - One variable is kept constant - Another measured to see if it changes (IV)...
Experimental Design
- Allocating participants to conditions - Independent measures, repeated measures, matched pairs Repeated measures Participants take part in both conditions + Any difference between conditions likely to be due to IV not pts variables + Controls individual differences...
Independent Measures
Divided randomly into 2 groups + each does a different condition of IV + Each pts sees only ½ of study = harder for them to work out aim of study = reduces demand characteristics + Avoids practice & order effects = pts only does 1 condition = cannot be affected by...
Self-report Studies
Questionnaires Self-report method in which a series of answers is given in a written format, either by making a choice/ answer (closed question) or an extended answer (open question) + Collect large amount of data quickly from large sample (compared to techniques e.g....
Observation
Naturalistic observation Observation of behaviour in a natural setting, with no investigator interference + High in ecological validity + Used to generate ideas for experimental research / validate experimental findings - No manipulation of variables = cannot infer...
Types of Sampling Procedures
Event sampling= recording the number of times a certain behaviour occurs in a group Time sampling = recording behaviours in a given time frame e.g. recording every 30 seconds Correlational analysis Statistical analysis based on a relationship between co-variables...
The Working Memory Model
- Baddeley and Hitch felt that the STM was not just one store, but a number of different stores - This is because if you do two things at once and they are both visual tasks you don’t perform as well as if you did them separately - But, if you do two things at once...
Explanations for Forgetting: Inference
- Forgetting is the loss of the ability to recall or recognise something they have previously learned INTERFERENCE THEORY - Interference is an explanation of forgetting as one memory disrupts the ability to recall another. - As the two pieces of information conflict...
Explanations for Forgetting: Retrieval Failure
- Forgetting in LTM is mainly due to retrieval failure and a lack of accessibility rather than availability - This is the failure to find an item of information because you have insufficient clues or cues RETRIEVAL FAILURE THEORY - This is forgetting due to...
Types of Long Term Memory
- In 1985 Endel Tulving realised that the MSM’s view of LTM was too simplistic and inflexible. - He proposed that there are three different LTM stores, containing different types of information. - He also divided these into two main types of memory: explicit or...
Short Term and Long Term Memory
SHORT TERM MEMORY - The limited capacity memory store - Your memory for immediate events - Memories disappear unless they are rehearsed - Capacity is between 5-9 items - Duration is between 18-30 seconds - Coding is mainly acoustic - Sometimes referred to as working...
The Multi Store Model of Memory
- A representation of how memory works based on three separate memory stores (sensory register, short term memory and long term memory) and how information is processed between these stores DESCRIPTION - Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968) presented the...
The Humanistic Approach
- Established in the 1950s in America by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow - The humanistic approach is seen as the third force in psychology (after behaviourist and the psychodynamic approach) - The approach formed largely due to concerns from the therapists regarding...
Comparisons of Approaches
Behavioural Approach: Treating Phobias
SYSTEMATIC DESENSITISATION - This is a behavioural therapy designed to gradually reduce phobic anxiety through the principle of classical conditioning. - If the sufferer can learn to relax in the presence of the phobic stimulus they will be cured. - Essentially a new...
Cognitive Approach: Explaining Depression
BECK’S COGNITIVE THEORY OF DEPRESSION - In 1967 American Psychiatrist Aaron Beck suggested a cognitive approach to explaining why some people are more vulnerable to depression than others. - The way people think effects this the most FAULTY INFORMATION PROCESSING -...
Cognitive Approach: Treating Depression
COGNITIVE BEHAVIOUR THEORY - CBT is the most commonly used psychological treatment for depression and a range of other mental health problems. - CBT begins with an assessment in which the patient and the cognitive behaviour therapist work together to clarify the...
Biological Approach: Explaining Ocd
GENETIC EXPLANATIONS - OCD is a condition that largely understood as biological in nature. - Genes are involved in individual vulnerability to OCD. - Lewis (1936) observed that of his OCD patients 37% had parents with OCD and 21% had siblings with OCD. - This suggests...
Biological Approach: Treating Ocd
DRUG THERAPY - Drug therapy for disorders aims to increase or decrease levels of neurotransmitters in the brain or to increase/decreases their activity. SSRIs - The standard medical treatment used to tackle the symptoms of OCD involves a particular type of...
Origins of Psychology
PSYCHOLOGY - The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour in a given context SCIENCE - The means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation - The aim is to discover general laws and...
Learning Approaches: Social Learning Theory
- Bandura agreed with behaviourists that behaviour is learnt through experience - However, he believes that behaviour is not learnt through conditioning - Argued that classical and operant conditioning could not account for all human learning - There are important...
The Biological Approach
- Predates psychology but established in the 1980s due to advances in technology - Emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance - Suggests that everything psychological is at first biological so to fully understand behaviour...
The Influence of Early Attachments on Later Relationships
- The major importance of attachment is the ability to form relationships with people other than the primary attachment figure INTERNAL WORKING MODEL - Bowlby’s concept of the internal working model is similar to a schema - Bowlby suggested that a child having their...
Definitions of Abnormality
STATISTICAL INFREQUENCY - Occurs when an individual has a less common characteristic. - This model argues that behaviours that are statistically rare should be seen as abnormal. - What is regarded as statistically rare depends on normal distribution; most people will...
Mental Disorders
- Three of the most common mental disorders are phobias, depression and OCD
Phobias
- Phobias are categorised by excessive fear and anxiety triggered by an object, place or situation - Instance of irrational fear that produce avoidance - This interferes with everyday life BEHAVIOURAL PANIC - A phobic person may panic is response to the presence of...
Depression
- Depression is classified as a mood disorder where an individual feels sad and/or lacks interest in their usual activities BEHAVIOURAL ACTIVITY LEVELS - Typically sufferers of depression have reduced levels of activity, making them lethargic. - Sufferers tend to...
Ocd
- OCD is classed as an anxiety disorder - The disorder has two main components: obsessions and compulsions - Obsessions are persistent thoughts - Compulsions are repetitive behaviours BEHAVIOURAL COMPULSIONS - Sufferers of OCD feel compelled to repeat a behaviour. - A...
Behavioural Approach: Explaining Phobias
- The behavioural approach emphasises the role of learning in the acquisition of behaviour. THE TWO-PROCESS MODEL - In 1960 Hobart Mowrer proposed the two-process model based on the behavioural approach to phobias. - This starts with that phobias are acquired (learned...
Ainsworth’s Strange Situation
-The strange situation was developed by Mary Ainsworth in 1969. -The aim was to be able to observe key attachment behaviours as a means of assessing the quality of a child’s attachment to a caregiver. PROCEDURE - Controlled observation with a two-way mirror -...
Cultural Variations in Attachment
- The Strange Situation procedure has had a profound impact within psychology - The procedure has been used in a variety of cultural settings to identify whether patterns of attachments appear to be universal or are subject to cultural influences. - However, child...
Bowlby’s Theory of Maternal Deprivation
- John Bowlby proposed his theory of maternal deprivation in 1951 - He focused on the idea that the continual presence of nurture from a mother or mother-substitute is essential for normal psychological development of babies and toddlers both emotionally and...
Romanian Orphan Studies: Effects of Institutionalisation
INSTITUTIONALISATION - Research into Maternal Deprivation has turned to institutionalised orphan studies as a means of studying the effects of deprivation. - Institutionalisation is the effect of institutional care as it can affect the development of children - The...
Attachment Figures
-One of the concerns in research is who the infants become attached to PARENT-INFANT INTERACTION - Traditionally we have thought of in terms of mother-infant interaction. - Schaffer and Emerson (1964) found that the majority of babies did become attached to their...
Stages of Attachment
SCHAFFER AND EMERSON (1964) -In 1964 Schaffer and Emerson aimed to investigate the formation of early attachments - In particular the age at which they developed, their emotional intensity and whom they were directed. PROCEDURE - 60 babies from Glasgow - the majority...
Animal Studies of Attachment
- Animal studies are studies carried out on non-human animal species rather than on humans, either for ethical or practical reasons - They have looked at the formation of early bonds between non-human parents and their offspring - Attachment like behaviour is common...
Explanations of Attachment: learning Theory
- One of the major approaches to understanding behaviour id the learning theory which proposes that certain behaviours are innate but most behaviours are learned through experience - Explanations for learning of behaviour include classical and operant conditioning...
Explanations of Attachment: Bowlby’s Theory
- Bowlby rejected learning theory as an explanation of attachment - He looked at Lorenz’s and Harlow’s research and proposed an evolutionary explanation - He suggested that attachment was innate system that gave a survival advantage - Attachment means that young...
Types and explanations of conformity
TYPES OF CONFORMITY - Kelman (1958) proposed three types of conformity: - Compliance - Changing your views in public as you want to fit in with the group - Identification - Changing your views in public and in private but only in the presence of the group -...
Conformity – asch
- Asch wanted to test informative and normative social influence and if people conform to a majority view - Asch (1951) asked student volunteers to take part in a visual discrimination task but unbeknown to the volunteers all but one of the participants were...
Conformity to Social Roles: Zimbardo’s Study
- Following reports in the 1960s USA of brutality by prison guards, Zimbardo wanted to know if the brutality was created by statistic personalities or the situation THE STANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT - In 1973 Zimbardo et al set up a mock prison in the basement of the...
Obedience: Milgram’s Study
- Obedience is a form of social influence in which an individual follows a direct order - The person issuing the order is usually a figure of authority who have the power to punish the individual MILGRAM'S ORIGINAL OBEDIENCE STUDY - Milgram (1963) was looking to...
Obedience: Situational Variables
- After Milgram conducted his first study on obedience, he carried out a large number of variations in order to consider the situational variables that might create greater or lesser obedience. PROXIMITY - In this variation the teacher and learner were in the same...
Explanations for Obedience
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS AGENTIC STATE - A mental state where we feel no personal responsibility for our behaviour because we believe ourselves to be acting (an agent) for an authority figure. - This frees us from the demands of our consciences and allows us to obey even...
Explanations of Resistance to Social Influence
SOCIAL SUPPORT - Social Support is the perception that an individual has assistance available from other people, and that they are part of a supportive network CONFORMITY - Social support can help people resist conformity as the pressure to conform can be reduced if...