Blog

Cultural Influences on Gender Roles

  • Cultural Similarities
  • Cross-cultural studies of gender show that every society has some divison of labour and behaviour by gender. (Munroe and Munroe 1975). For example, food preparation and childcare is predominately a female role, girls are socialised more towards compliance and boys assertiveness. Buss’ evidence showed that in all cultures women seek men with resources while men prefer younger, physically attractive women.
  • Evaluation:
  • There is supporting evidence of cultural similarities in terms of gender stereotypes. Williams and Best (1990) produced evidence of cultural similarities. They tested 2,800 students in 30 different countries using a 300 item adjective checklist. Participants were asked to decide if each adjective was associated with men or women. Men were seen as dominant, aggressive and autonomous whereas women were seen as nurturing and emotional. This suggests that there is a universal stereotype of male-female characteristics. However, there are issues with the use of this study as supporting evidence, the first is that the task involved an element of forced choice, the participants could either choose male or female, there wasn’t an ‘equal’ or ‘unclear’ choice, just a ‘cannot say’. Therefore the answers and results may be exaggerated. Also the task was in relation to stereotypes, not behaviours and the participants were likely to share attributes as they were all students, for example, an education, similar influences, etc. This would explain the high level of consensus and questions the validity of the study.
  • However, the fact that labour divisions are the same in most cultures suggests that biology rather than culture influences gender role development but we don’t know if its due to the direct outcome of biological differences (like the evolutionary approach) or the indirect outcomes (as proposed by Eagly and Wood). In fact, there is contrasting evidence from Sugihara and Katsurada (2002) who found that Japanese men don’t seek to be macho in the same way that western men do but value being capable in the arts, something that would generally be regarded as feminine.
  • Cultural Variations:
  • Despite such similarities, there are also some significant variations. For example, Berry et al (2002) found male superiority on spatial perceptual tasks in relatively tight knit sedentary societies (unmoving, western cultures) but absent or even reversed in ‘looser’ nomadic societies. This shows that sex differences on spatial perceptual tasks interact with ecological and cultural factors. The same pattern applies to conformity. Women are generally more conformist that men, but this difference varies with culture. Berry et al report that conformity is highest in sedentary societies.

Evaluation:

Evidence suggests that sex differences are linked to culture and ecology.  For example, male superiority on spatial tasks was highest in sedentary societies. In sedentary societies the division of labour is due to females staying at home whilst men go and hunt, contrasting to nomadic societies where both sexes hunt, lessening the division of labour and reducing the difference in spatial task ability. Where there is a strong division of labour, childhood rearing will have influenced spatial perceptual skills. This interpretation indicates it is social factors that underline cross-cultural differences in divisions of labour. However, Kimura (1999) suggests a biological interpretation. In hunting societies those with poor spatial perception skills are likely to die out, thus eliminating genes from the gene pool. This would explain why in societies where both sexes hunt, there would be less gender difference in spatial abilities.

Historical changes could provide an explanation of sex roles.  Williams and Best 1990b highlighted how wealth is associated with greater role equality. The greater the socioeconomic development of a society, the smaller the difference in male and female roles. This relationship was also reported in Eagly & Woods analysis of cross cultural data where they reported that in societies of high status women ( and increased socioeconomic development) male-female division of labour is less pronounced.

It is likely that the research suffers from cultural bias. As the majority of the research on this topic has been gathered by Western psychologists, using western tests and measures for western psychology in both western and non western cultures, its possible that the results are meaningless as the measures weren’t used for the intended cultures group. Therefore the conclusions are likely to be biased in favour of the designed culture- Western. Berry et al (2002) recommended the use of more genuine indigenous research to avoid biases, just using indigenous researchers didn’t solve the problem because they may still be using western tests.

Cultural Influences on Gender Roles- Plan

AO1

SIMILARITIES

  • Munroe & Monroe 1975: cross-cultural studies show every society has gender division of labour and roles
  • g. food prep and child care- predominately female, sometimes shared but never a male role. Girls: compliance, Boys: assertiveness
  • Buss’ evidence: women seek men with resources, men prefer young attractive women.

VARIATIONS

  • Berry et al (2002): male superiority in spatial perception tasks in sedentary societies but this difference was absent in nomadic societies.
  • Sex differences interact with ecological and cultural factors. It applies to conformity. Women are more conformist than men, varies with culture.

AO2

P: Supporting evidence

E: Williams and Best 1990: tested 2800 students in 30 countries using a 300 adjective checklist. Assign each to a gender. Men: dominant, aggressive, autonomous. Women: nurturing, obedient, deferent

E: Suggests that there are universal stereotypes. However, issues with this study.

E: an element of forced choice, either male or female. Also, task was in relation to stereotypes not behaviour and they used all uni students. Participant bias?

E: Therefore, answers and conclusions could be exaggerated which would explain the high level of consensus.

P: However, the similarity in labour divisions across cultures suggests a biological influence.

E: Unsure if it is the direct outcome (evolutionary) or indirect (Eagly & Wood)

E: There is contrasting evidence from Suighara & Katsurada (2002): Japanese men weren’t concerned with being macho, instead perfecting the arts.

P: Evidence suggest sex differences and culture and ecology are linked

E: e.g. male superiority on spatial tasks, higher in sedentary societies where the division is due to females staying at home. VS nomadic societies: both sexes hunt

E: Strong DOL: childhood rearing will have influenced

E: Indicates social factors underline cross-cultural differences.

E: However, Kimura (1999): suggests a biological interpretation. In hunting societies, those with poor spatial skills are likely to die out; this explains why nomadic societies have less gender differences in spatial abilities.

P: Historical changes could explain sex roles.

E: Williams and Best 1990b: wealth is associated with greater equality. The greater socioeconomic development: smaller differences in sex roles.

E: Relationship was also reported in Eagly & Woods analysis of cross-cultural data: high status women societies, male-female division is less pronounced.

P: Likely the research suffers from culture bias.

E: Been gathered by Western psychologists using W methods in both W and non-W cultures. Results may be meaningless due to not being used in designed culture.

E: Conclusions are likely to be biased in W favour.

E: Berry et al (2002): more genuine indigenous research, not just indigenous researchers but tests too.