- Social Learning Theory
- Bandura (1991)
- Indirect Reinforcement:
- children observe the behaviour of others and learn the consequences of the behaviour (vicarious reinforcement). This information is stored as an expectancy of future outcome. Learning such behaviours results in imitation or modelling.
- Direct Reinforcement:
- Influence of Parents:
- There is considerable evidence to show that parents give differential reinforcement- they reinforce gender appropriate behaviour but not inappropriate behaviour. For example, Smith and Lloyd (1978) observed mothers and infants playing. The infant was presented as a boy or girl and the mothers selected gender appropriate toys and also responded more actively when boys showed increased motor activity. There is also evidence from Fagot et al (1992) that shows that such differential reinforcement does affect behaviour. They found that parents who show the clearest patterns of differential reinforcement have children who are quickest to develop strong gender preferences.
- Influence of Peers:
- Peers are important as they offer a model of gender appropriate behaviours. This was demonstrated by Perry and Bussey (1979). They showed film clips to children aged between 8 and 9. In the film boys and girls were seen selecting an apple or a pear. They were then asked to select a fruit. The boys selected the fruit the boys had chosen and the same for girls.
- Peers also provide feedback when a friend steps outside of gender appropriate behaviour. They reinforce and punish inappropriate conduct. (Lamb et al 1980) This may involve direct tuition e.g. ‘don’t be a cissy’
- Influence of the Media:
- Media generally portrays males as independent direct and pursuing engaging careers and hobbies whereas females are portrayed as dependent, unambitious and emotional (Bussey and Bandura 1999).
- Those who have higher exposure to these differential gender representations tend to display more stereotypic gender role conceptions than light viewers (McGhee and Frueh 1980).
- Evaluation:
- There is evidence to support the modelling aspect. Banduras Bobo doll study demonstrated the effect of an adult model on children’s aggressive behaviour. Perry and Bussey also demonstrated the effect of modelling on gender. However, children only modelled same sex behaviour as long as the behaviour was not counter stereotypical. Therefore modelling appears to be limited by stereotypes.
- Despite evidence, direct tuition may be more effective than modelling. Martin et al (1995) found that preschool boys played with toys labelled as ‘boys toys’ even if girls played with them. (This is a form of direct tuition due to being told they are boys toys) However, they didn’t play with girls toys even if they saw boys playing with them. This suggests that direct instruction is more important than modelling, at least in pre school children.
- There is supporting research of media influence on gender roles. Rare cases of communities that have no TV allow observations of the effect of exposure to media stereotypes. Williams (1985) studied a valley of Canada without TV access and compared it to other towns with varying degrees of channel access. He found that children with no TV had weaker gender stereotypes but after exposure to TV their views became more stereotyped. Such research leads to pressure on programme makers to utilise the media to alter gender stereotypes. Pingree (1978) for example, found that stereotyping was reduced when children were shown commercials with women in non-traditional roles. However, pre-adolescent boys displayed stronger stereotypes after exposure to the contrasting display of roles. Therefore, its likely applying the research to younger children will have more of an impact on their stereotypes.
Social Influences on Gender Roles- Plan
AO1
PARENTS
- Differential reinforcement: reinforce gender appropriate behaviour but not inappropriate
- Smith and Lloyd (1978): observed mothers and infants playing, mothers selected gender appropriate toys for their infants and responded more actively when boys showed increased motor activity.
- Fagot et al (1992): parents who show clear differential reinforcement have children whoa re quickest to develop strong gender preferences
PEERS
- Offer a model of gender appropriate behaviour
- Perry and Bussey (1979): after watching a film of people choosing fruit, children aged 8-9 chose their genders fruit.
- Also provide feedback when they go outside gender appropriate behaviour, they reinforce and punish each other.
MEDIA
- Males: independent and perusing engaging jobs and hobbies
- Women: dependent, unambitious and emotional (Bussey and Bandura (1999)
- Those with high exposure, more stereotypical in role conceptions. (McGhee and Frueh (1980))
AO2
P: Support of modelling aspect
E: Banduras Bobo doll & Perry and Bussey
E: However, children only model stereotypical behaviour
E: Therefore, modelling is limited.
P: Direct tuition may be more effective
E: Martin et al (1995): preschool boys played with toys labelled as ‘boy toys’ even if girls played with them but not toys labelled as ‘girl toys’ even if boys played with them. (DT due to being told they are boy’s toys.)
E: DT is more important than modelling, at least in preschool children.
P: Supporting research of media influence
E: rare cases of no TV communities. Williams 1985: Canada. Children with no TV access had weaker gender stereotypes than those with more access. But after exposure, their views became more stereotyped.
E: research leads to pressure on programme makers. Pingree (1978) e.g. found stereotyping was reduced when children were shown women in non-traditional roles.
E: However, boys showed stronger stereotypes after exposure. Therefore, its likely applying the research to ounger children will be more effective in altering gender stereotypes.