Factors Influencing the Choice of Research Topic
The Relationship between Sociology and Social Policy
Social policy refers to attempts by governments to influence how society is organised and how members of society should behave by bringing in new laws, guidelines and controls
Social policy is often aimed at bringing about change
This change may have profound immediate effects or may have a more gradual influence
A social policy is any type of social behaviour that causes friction and misery
Sociological problems focus on all the relationships that members of society enter into
Sociologists are interested in explaining why companionate marriage is more popular then open uncommitted relationships with a range of partners
Sociologists play an important part in helping social policymakers formulate social policy as they collect evidence relating to two types of problem that result in the need of social policy
Marriage is a sociological problem that requires an explanation
Normal behaviour is just as interesting to sociologists as behaviour that is regarded as a social problem
Most sociological research is therefore aimed at solving social problems like crime or at explaining sociological problems
Sociologists conduct research into social problems there is no guarantee that policy makers will use their findings or that the solutions sociologists propose will find their way into social policies
Two types of social phenomena interest sociologists with regard to choosing topics to research
- Social problems
Aspects of social life that cause misery and anxiety to both private individuals and society in general
Crime, child abuse, domestic violence and suicide
Research of social problems is often sponsored by those in power, particularly governments
Governments social policies aimed at solving or reducing social problems are based on the evidence gathered by sociologists
Sociological research is central to social policy because it can provide governments with crucial data about the extent of the problem with sociological explanations shape social policy response
Governments don’t always take action when the social problem is identified or when empirical research suggests solutions
Social policymakers may ignore sociological research
- Sociological problems
Successful society involves a number of social processes and functions
Sociologists are interested in societies and social institutions work and how individuals interact and interpret one another behaviour
Aspect of social life is a sociological problem
Consequently, a great deal of sociological research functions to increase knowledge of how society works and to explain why social institutions as well as social groups and individuals tend to behave in patterned and predictable ways
Research may have side effects to encourage politicians and social policy-makers to adjust or change existing laws and policies
Sociological research is focused on social and sociological problems and their relationship to social policy in 3 ways:
- Sociological research aims to be descriptive
Purpose to be describe a situation or set of facts
- Sociological research is explanatory
Sets out to explain social phenomenon such as poverty
Involves some description but the ultimate goal is to suggest reasons why poverty occurs and encourages social policy-makers to do something about it
- Sociological research is evaluative
Sets out to monitor and to access the effect of a social policy
Whether a sociologist is interested in pursuing the answers to social or sociological problems, the choice of research topic is dependent on number of other practical influences
First perspective suggests jobs of sociologists is to merely collect evidence on behalf of social policymakers but is no concern of the sociologist how data is used
We trust policymakers as sociological data for the good of all members of society
Sociologists do not have the moral responsibility to ensure social policymakers use the data properly
So, the sociologists are merely disinterested and objective pursuers of facts and truths
Second perspective suggests sociologists need to take responsibility for how their work is translated into social policy as society is characterised by conflicts of interest between different social groups
Wield tremendous power and may be the cause of social problems identified by sociologists, so some sociologists argued that the point of sociology is not just interpret the world but to challenge its organisation and change it for the better
Costs
Research plans
Large-scale research projects are expensive such as costs of some research are likely to include the salaries of the research team and the secretarial help, equipment such as computers
Employment and training of a large interviewing team or a long-term participant observation will require substantial funds
Financial resources are a low, a survey using postal questionnaire may be more practical than methods that involve employing several people
Interests and Values of the Researcher
Strongly attached to the subjects of sociology because they strongly feel that some injustice or inequality needs to be corrected
The poverty researcher Peter Townsend was committed to eradicating poverty and his studies of the elderly (1957) and the poor (1979) were the results of that commitment
Important to understand that this does not mean sociological research by committed sociologists is biased
Major difference between sociologists and journalists is that the latter often work for newspaper that occupy a political position
Values may influence their choice of topic, but the methods used to gather evidence should be free to bias
Current Debates in the Academic World
Influenced by what is currently fashionable in the academic world
Woman’s position in society consequently became a hot topic
Similarly, the conservative governments focus on law and order in 1980s saw a plethora of studies focusing on criminality, riots, moral panics, prisons etc…
In 1990s saw a rise in the popularity of the theory of postmodernism and a consequent avalanche of studies focusing on identity politics and consumption
Funding
Costs money and consequently the values of those providing the financing may also affect the direction and tone of the research
Some sources of funding for sociological research are impartial and have no agenda
Judge a research proposal by a sociologist purely on its merit
Universities and the Economic and Social Research Council are the most likely funders of social research to take this neutral position
Some charities have a particular interest
Tanks that specialise interests and consequently are more likely to sponsor and commission research in those fields
Some funders of research such as the governments, pressure groups and business may only fund research that supports their cause and agenda
Tanks are politically motivated and consequently only fund research into issues that may support their perspective
Governments and businesses also finance sociological research, but they are likely to commission research that it is going to bite them by suggesting they’re the cause of the problem
Access to Research Subjects
Once made their mind up on research topic they are going to research a certain group however this a naïve view as it fails to consider how much power the group has to negotiate the terms
Power to resist the attentions of sociologists
It is no coincidence that sociologists have carried out thousands of explanatory surveys of the poor and powerless but there are few sociological studies on the rich and powerful
Majority of studies of the rich and powerful are descriptive surveys in which the data has mainly been taken from secondary sources
Powerful people can more easily use their authority to deny sociologists access to their world
Few studies of head teachers or governors but hundreds on pupils
Consequently, the sociological world of research can sometimes feel over-peopled by those who are powerless and who are unable to resist the charms and sweet talk
The world of the powerful that run society and benefit from doing so is off-limits to sociologists
Sociologists sometimes interested in groups that are closed institutions such as prisons, mental hospitals, woman’s refuge and so on which are difficult for sociologists to access
Sociologists is interested in the research topic of criminality or deviance it is likely that social researchers will be rebuffed as criminals and deviants are likely to be uncooperative
Some research topics will be off-limits to sociologists because they are too sensitive, and research may have negative repercussions for those taking part
Access and Gate-keeping
Joining exclusive or deviant groups that tend to shut out outsiders or gaining access to them to conduct questionnaires and interviews is not possible but needs to be sensitively thought through in terms on ethics and personal safety
Sociologists will need to use intermediary or gate keeper which is a person who does not have contact with a relevant or appropriate set of individuals
An intermediary is crucially important as they vouch for the researcher and help to establish a bond of trust between sociologists and the group in question
Key professionals fill this role
Attempted to use gate-keepers to access the world of crime and deviance
World of crime not only involves people who are conventionally powerful, but it also includes people who are powerful in the sense that they are potentially dangerous
Sociologists physical harm is they discover that they are the unwriting subject of a sociologist’s study
Sociologists to gain access to the criminal world by negotiating with those whom the sociologists are interested in so that a degree of cooperation is achieved
Finding a gate keeper is not easy
Getting criminals to agree to be the subject of sociological research is less easy still
Consequently, there are few studies of working criminals
Access a prison and to interview convicted criminals than it is to access an organised criminal gang
Sociologists think carefully about how they are going to access the institution in which their research group is likely to be found
The Choice of Research Method
Primary and Secondary Data
Def. gathered first hand by sociologists (primary)
Def. collected by people who are not sociologists and published or written down (secondary)
Private and personal documents are those produced by individuals
Some individuals, mainly politicians, often write these with future publication in mind
Individuals might be asked to keep a dairy by the sociologist or the government
Public documents are formal reports usually based on evidence submitted by various experts into specific events or problems
Most sociologists research tends to use a combination of primary and secondary data
However, what specific research methods are adopted may depend on the following theoretical and practical factors
Theoretical Factors
Choice of research method is likely to be influenced by the position that the researcher takes with regard to with positivism and interpretivism
However, they choose to ignore this debate altogether and just use these methods that work best, regardless of whether they produce qualitative or quantitative data and whether it is scientific or not
Sociologist are more concerned with the following practical factors when choosing research method
Practical Factors
Cost
Choice of research method and the size of the research team will depend on funding
If funding is good thy can employ and train a large interviewing team to carry out a national survey or to carry out a longitudinal study
If funding is low. They might not be able to carry out all of these so have to send out postal questionnaires or structured interviews
Secondary sources cost little or nothing to access
Consequently, are very attractive to sociologists as a reliable and cheap source of data
Time
Depends on funding
Large budget will extend the time available and give the research team the option of carrying out a survey aimed at sample of thousands
Results from survey may take months to process and collate
Money available over a period of years, then the sociologists may be able to carry out a longitudinal study
Focuses on particular group over a period year in order to monitor how much change is taking place in their lives
Researcher lacks time they choose to save time by constructing a small-scale study focused on collecting qualitative data via unstructured interviews from a small sample
Focus on analysis of secondary sources rather than carrying out first hand research
Subject Matter
Areas of social life are more accessible to researchers than others
However, some subject matter is extremely sensitive
The nature of the subject matter can affect the researcher’s choice of method, it may determine the method
Sensitive topics such as racism, crime, sexual behaviour and any form of discrimination may mean questionnaires are more practical as researchers can guarantee anonymity and confidentiality
Some subjects are problematic such as domestic abuse
Consequently, researchers need to think carefully about the reaction of the research subjects to the subject matter and which research tools are going to produce the most valid data
Social characteristics are important such as studies into black and Asian people cope with racism might find that interviewing team made up of black and Asian researchers elicits more valid data
White researchers because the research subjects might find it easier and less threatening to open up to researchers with similar social characteristics
If research subjects are young it should administer by relatively young sociologists as young research subjects may associate older people with authority and fail to co-operate
Female victims of sexual harassment in the workplace may be likely to open up to female researchers as they feel that such researchers will more empathetic
Social Characteristics
Age profile, their ethnicity and social class
Status of researcher in the eyes of those being researched needs to be thought through if research to be successful such as negative consequences for the validity of the data collected if researchers from ethnic minority are collecting data from white people
If white researchers are involved interviewing black and Asian people about their experience of racism
Aspect of the research design and the recruitment of the research team so needs very careful consideration
Gaining access to a group of people for research purposes can be difficult
Some groups reject any attempt to sociologically research them as they are too powerful such as the police or because they are deviant such a criminal gang
If large number of research subjects are required, questionnaires or structured interviews are most suited to generating data from lots of people
Sociologists requires only quantitative data so they will choose to use either questionnaires or structured interviews
Sociologists requires rich qualitative data about peoples feeling, attitudes and experiences they will use unstructured interviews or participant observation
A social group is geographically concentrated in one or two places this may inspire the use of structured or group interviews is they are children or teens because the cost of travelling will be low
In contrast, a geographically scattered research group may inspire the use of cheaper option of postal questionnaires
Ethics
Laid down by British Social Association where what social or sociological problem to pursue and which research method they are going to use
Points out that research subjects are people with rights, and it is responsibility of the researcher to make sure people take part in research are not exploited or harmed
A code of sociological ethics is thought to generate trust
Ethic set of rules of more likely to improve the validity of data because people are likely to convey what they really think, feel and do
- Should be fully are that they are part a sociological research project = knowing the aims and objectives (Briefed, Debrief)
They need to be informed what the purpose of the research is so they can make an informed choice as to whether they want to be part of it = informed consent
Giving such consent is not always a straightforward matter
- Should not engage in any form of deception (Deception)
So, sociologists should not keep information about the research from those taking part and they must not lie
BSA note that it is deceptive to establish friendships with people in order to manipulate data from them
However, not all sociologists agree with this ethical rule
Some agree that deceit can produce data that cannot be produced under more honest circumstances and the value of such data to policy-makers
- Keen that privacy in research subjects should be safeguarded (confidentiality)
Difficult ethical goal to achieve due to sociological research is by its very true nature intrusive
However, they suggest that maintaining privacy can be strengthened by keeping the identity of research participants secret
Anonymity means that the information that an individual give to the researcher should not be able to be traced back to the individual
Most researchers, are careful to disguise the identity of individual participants when they write up their research
Evidence that a guarantee of confidentiality may result in more validity in that if people know they cannot be identified as they may be more willing to reveal personal and private information
- Protected from harm
Sociological research may harm research subjects emotionally or psychologically by asking questions that trigger memories that people would prefer to forget or create anxiety or fear
Sociological research may also harm the reputation of people who take part in the research
Feel that they have been misrepresented and/or exposed to ridicule
Danger that people may face punishment
3 types of harm:
- Physical harm
- Emotional or psychological harm
- Professional harm
- Behaviour is never illegal or immoral
Sociologists need to avoid being drawn into situations where they may commit crimes or possibly assist or witness deviant acts
Sociologists argue that if a sociologist comes into possession of guilty knowledge that is knowledge of crimes committed in the past or future intentions to commit crimes
- Avoid putting themselves in situations in which they or their research team are put at risk of physical harm (legality and morality)
Not all sociologists agree
Preferred method of interpretivists sociologists is covert participant observation which depends on deceit, pretending to be a member of group which is unlikely to co-operate with sociological researchers
Argue that deceit is justified because the rich results obtained from participant observation are more valid than those obtained from more overt methods such as questionnaires and interviews
Interpretivists sociologists do not agree that they should not engage in any criminal or immoral acts
Point out if they are using participant observation, they may have to commit minor criminal acts in order to gain the trust of the group they are observing
Aims, Hypothesis and Research Questions
Def. a purpose or proposed outcome
Refer to the overall purpose of research
Usually comprise broad statements or research questions about the desired outcomes the research
Research project usually has one or two aims which are incorporated into a hypothesis
The Hypothesis
Def. an informed guess that something might be true that can be tested by constructing a particular research tool
Proposition or inspired guess based on observation of phenomena that can be scientifically tested to work out whether something is true or whether a correlation or a cause and effect relationship exists between variables
A hypothesis is also known as conjecture
Two types of variables
- IV = cause
- DV = effect
Researcher can avoid repeating research that has already been done
Reading may provide the researcher with ideas as to the direction their research should take
These ideas can be shaped into a hypothesis that the researcher wishes to test by carrying out sociological research
A hypothesis is an informed guess or hunch that the researcher thinks might be true and that can be tested by breaking it down into aims and objectives
Informed because it is based on sociological knowledge
Essentially a prediction of what the sociologists thinks their research will unearth
Not all research has clear hypothesis when it begins
Prefer to begin with a general aim and to allow the hypothesis to take shape and develop as the research data is collected – grounded theory
Operationalisation
Hypotheses are tested through a process of operationalisation
Hypothesis is broken down into parts which can be quantified and measured
Precise measurement of social phenomena cannot occur without it
Sociologists intended to test a hypothesis using observation and hypothesis might be operationalised into an observation schedule
Most difficult concept to define and operationalise is the concept of social class
They agree that social class is normally based on the jobs that people do
Traditionally been perceived by sociologists as working class while white-collar workers, professionals
Occupation is regarded by many sociologists as good indicator of social class
Generally, indicates other status factors such as income and level of education and whether people own their home
An example is:
‘Working-class people are less likely to experience upward social
Mobility’ gives rise’
- What is meant by working class?
- Are less likely than who?
- What is meant by upward social mobility?
Positivists prefer it as it assists reliability as other researchers can use the same operationalisation criteria
Aids objectivity as they operationalisation process should be weed out potential bias such as design for questions
Ensure that validity is achieved in terms of the data gathered as operationalisation should establish what the sociologists is setting it out to measure
Measuring Cultural Capital – Noble and Davies (2009)
Developed a short questionnaire to measure the cultural capital of students aged 16-17 in their final year of school and college
Parental occupation was measured using the governments social class classification and where the occupation of both parents was reported and the higher of the two was used
Researchers operationalised the concept of cultural capital by asking questions based on 3 areas:
- Educational and occupational background of parents
- Students leisure activities such as watching popular entertainment on television
- Extent to which parents encouraged their children to take an interest in cultural pursuits such as reading newspaper
Questioning also focused on how many books were in the home and parents’ cultural activities
The aim was to see whether there was any correlation between particular cultural activities, social class and higher education correlations
Sampling Process
A sample is a group of people who take part in sociological research
Prefer to use a representative sample hoping to generalise their results
Research population is the group that the sociologists has decided to study
Important that the research is based on a precise definition of this group
Researchers precisely identified the research population that they are going to focus their research population that they are going to focus their research on they then need to think about how they are going to get access to the group
Research or target population to all those people who could be included in the research
Very good chance that this group will be made up of a very large number of people as possibly several million depending on the subject of the research
Going to be too expensive, time-consuming and impractical to include the whole research population in the research
Concept of sampling Is a familiar one
Most researchers wish to select the sample that is representative that is a typical cross-section of the population that they are interested in
Representative sample because they want to ensure generalisability
Representative sample is used is then possible to generalise to the wider research population
Sampling Techniques
Two main sampling techniques:
- Random sampling
- Non-random sampling
Random Sampling
Probability sample
Type of lottery
Sampling frame is a list of potential people who might become the research sample
Common sampling frame is the electoral register
Simplest form involves drawing names or numbers from a hat or a machine respectively
Normally involves the research subjects randomly from a list of names or addresses
Sampling frame is crucial to the process of random sampling
Organised into sampling units these may be individuals or households
Researcher is interested in specific types of individuals; these are various lists that can act as sampling frames
Every member of the research population has equal chance of being included in the sample
Simple Sample
A simple random sample does not guarantee what the researcher hopes is the outcome which is a representative sample
May end up selecting disproportionate number of people from one particular group in the research population
Creates a problem known as bias where any data collected is going to be skewed in favour of that variations
Consequently, sociologists developed two variations on the rando sample in order to produce proper representative samples
Main advantage of random sampling is that it minimises the possibility of bias of selection of those who will take part in the research
Should objectively select an impartial cross-section of the population being studied
Involves selecting names randomly from a sampling frame
Equal chance
Systematic Random Sampling –
Involves randomly choosing a number between 1 and 10 and picking the 10th number from that number such as 7, 17, 27, 37
Sampling frame until the required number in the sample is reached
Technique does not always guarantee a representative sample
Larger sample the more likely it is to be reasonably representative and less likely it is to be biased in favour of any one group
Stratified Random Sample –
Most common
Involves dividing the research population into a number of different sampling frames and using systematic random sampling to select group that will comprise the research sample
May produce a biased sample
Avoid this possibility, sociologists often choose to use a stratified random sampling that might work
Separate sampling frames are constructed for males and females
Is researcher wanted to stratify further because the hypothesis included reference to ethnicity and age, more sampling frames could be complied so right proportions of each group could be systematically and randomly sampled
An advantage of stratified random sampling is that distinct groups that exist within the research population can be represented within the sample according to their proportions in the wider population
Producing a sample that faithfully represents the variations that exists in the research population
Non-Random Sampling
Deliberately target specific groups rather than randomly selecting a sample from the general population
Some sociologists do not require random samples because they are targeting particular specialised groups such as housewives, tenants of a high-rise housing, doctors or skateboards
Interpretivists sociologists do not need random sampling as they are interested in the specific experience of particular small-scale groups located in specific locations
Quota Sampling
Like stratified random sampling but with important variation
Researcher decides how many of each category of a person should be included in the sample instead of selecting them at random from a sampling frame
The researcher goes out looking for the right number of people in each category until the quota if filled
Method is often used by market researchers and television news companies and newspaper to find out what peoples voting preferences are before an election
Lacks randomness so danger to bias as demonstrated that researchers are more likely to approach people, they believe will co-operate
Researchers only stop and question people who look suitable or cooperative or visit homes that look respectable
Consequently, doubtful whether this sampling technique is able to gather a sample that is truly representative of the research population
Go to people in the street or in shopping centres who have characteristics they are looking for
This makes is most often used by market researchers
Tendency for researchers to unconsciously neglect marginalised groups such as the homeless
Less likely to guarantee an objectively gathered representative sample from which researchers can confidently generalise
Purposive Sample
Def. Involves researchers choosing individuals or cases that fit the nature of the research
Purposive sampling occurs when a researcher chooses a particular group or place to study because it is known to be of type that is wanted
Goldthorpe and his team (1969) wanted to study manual workers with high incomes to see whether they had developed a middle-class way of life
Purposely decided to study workers employed by a car manufacturer in Luton because these manual workers were known to be well paid
Makes no sense to use other social groups
Not interested in a diverse research population so they will focus on people with certain characteristics
Opportunity Sample
Def. Essentially means making the most of situations or opportunities in which the research population is likely to be found so available at that time
Very similar to purposive sampling
Very unlikely that a sampling frame of African people is available to researchers
A better alternative would be able to identify opportunities in which there is a more chance of coming into contact with African people
Researchers might head down to community centres or churches that cater for African people and purposely ask all of those present to take part in the research
An event in which sociologists are interested
Plan ahead and make the most of the opportunity available to them to research the group involved
Sociologists interested in peoples voting behaviour may target people on the day of a general election as they come out of polling booths
Danger that purposive or opportunity samples may not be representative
Snowball Sample
Def. Getting a person to get their friends and family involves
Used when researchers experience difficulty is gaining access to a particular group of people who they wish to study as there is no sampling frame available
Because the research population engage in deviant or illegal activates that are normally carried out in isolation or in secret
Sampling technique involves finding and interviewing a person who fits the research needs and asking them to suggest someone else who might be willing to be interviewed
original small nucleus of people grows by adding people to it in stages much as snowball can be built up by rolling it along the snow on the ground
Sample can grow as large as the researcher wants
A danger with snowball sample is that people who are willing to co-operate with researchers may not be representative of the group under investigation mainly if group is committed to deviant or criminal activity which is normally highly secretive
Volunteer Sample
Def. person willingly to choose themselves
Variation on snowball sample
Sociologists may advertise for research volunteers in magazines and newspaper on university noticeboards or on the internet
No sampling frame is available, or the subject matter may focus on a research question that may be too embarrassing for a wider audience and result in high level of non-response or refusal
Both snowball and volunteer may fail to produce representative samples
People who take part in the research may not be typical of the research population that the sociologists is interested in
Use when it is difficult to find a quota, purposive or snowball
Danger that volunteers may not be typical or representative of the average student
Regarded as the weakness form of sampling
Higher Education Opportunities for South Asian Women – Bagguley and Hussain (2007)
Research team interviewed a total of 114 young woman
51 Pakistanis, 37 Indians and 26 Bangladeshi
Potential respondents were approached in a variety of ways
Purposive sampling was initially used in that undergraduates and current sixth formers were approached in the public social areas of their institutions
Bangladeshi students and recent graduates were contacted through local community centres
Samples were then further boosted through snowball sampling
A small sample of widening participation and careers-service staff in universities were also interviewed about their policy and practice in relation to south Asian women
Detecting Bias
All sampling techniques are compromise between representativeness and practicality; researchers often have to make do with samples that are not fully representative
Most important requirements of any research when it comes to sampling is to be aware of any potential bias caused by the sampling technique used and to report fully on this in the analysis of research findings
Pilot Studies
Def. a dress rehearsal usually using a small sub sample of a proposed larger social survey aimed at testing the reliability of the research tool excluding all forms of bias and judging both the representative and validity of data
Questionnaires are given to a few individuals or a couple of interviews are conducted in order to uncover potential research problems relating to response rates
Sustainability of the sample and the efficiency of the interviews
Useful as they act as an early warning system for problems that have arisen out of the operationalisation of the hypothesis or the choice of the sample
A pilot study is useful because it can check:
- Whether questions are clearly understood and interpreted in the same way
- Questions do not upset or lead the participants
- Sampling techniques used is successful in obtaining the right type of people to fill in the questionnaire
- Interviewing teams are well trained
- Data produced is the kind that is wanted
- Give researchers some idea of how many questionnaires will be returned
- Check the sample of those taking part are truly representative
Respondent Validation and Interpretation of Data
Bias and other problems can be spotted is through the use of respondent validation
Process by which the sociologist’s interpretation of an event or data is checked with that of those who took part in the event
Feedback is obtained from the participants about the accuracy of the data and about whether the researcher has fairly interpreted their behaviour
Bryman notes how far the researchers understanding of what is going on in a social setting corresponds with that of the group who normally occupy such a setting
Point of respondent validation which tends to be mainly used in interpretivist research is to reduce the possibility of the researcher exclusively applying their interpretation of the research data to the hypothesis because contains bias
Bryman argues that respondent validation can be problematic as the research sample might not be able to validate the research findings because they misunderstand it or might be unwilling to validate it as they misinterpret it as critical of their actions or refuse to co-operate with the validation process
Data collection in sociological research can be quantitative and qualitative
Quantitative data is statistical evidence that is usually collected using primary methods such as questionnaires and structured interviews
Numerically presented in the form of graphs, tables and bar charts
Some sociologists use secondary sources in order to gather statistical relating to wealth and income collected by the government are useful in determining whether inequality has increased or narrowed
Qualitative data takes a written form and provides a more personal and ethnographic account of the social world
Type of data focuses on how people who are the subject of sociological study to see or interpret the world around them
Normally allows research subjects to speak for themselves
Respondent validation involves researcher obtaining feedback from those being researched in order to make sure that researcher and researched agree on what was happening
Positivists are mainly interested in collecting quantitative data
They argue that such data needs to be objectively converted into graphical or table form in order that correlations between sets of data or cause and effect relationships can be established
Positivists argue that the interpretations of data must avoid subjective bias and be objective in the sense that data should not be excluded if it does not fit the hypothesis
Researchers should avoid being selective with data by only highlighting the aspect of the data their supports the hypothesis
Interpretivists collect qualitative data which is often difficult to analyse for correlations or cause and effect relationships
Interpretivists are aware of the dangers of subjectively and have a number of strategies