Functionalism
Parsons: Value Consensus and Stratification
Often described as a consensus theory as it suggests that society works best when there is an agreement or consensus over a shared value
Parsons (1951) different forms of social stratification, including social class reflects value consensus
He argued that in all societies some individuals are better than others than at achieving things that are regarded as worthy of reward according to the prevailing value consensus
In middle ages, knights were highly rewarded because being successful warrior was seen as important
Similarly, he suggests that most people agree that in modern industrial societies, entrepreneurs and executives who successfully run businesses creating wealth and jobs deserve highest rewards as they contribute most to the smooth-running society
David and Moore: Some Principles of Social Stratification
Argued that social stratification of some kind has been a feature of all human society
Concluded that stratification is functionally necessary
Argued main function of social stratification is to ensure effective role allocation and performance
Class societies are meritocracies so high rewards in a form income and status which are to motivate gifted people to make necessary scarifies with education and training
Function of social institutions like education is to allocate all individuals to an occupational role that suits their abilities with exams and qualifications
Role allocation which produces stratification as not all people are equally talented or skilled
So encourages all members of society to work to their best ability
Social stratification does 2 things:
- Allocates the right people to the most important roles
Ensure the most important positions of offering them higher rewards such as income and status
- Ensures people in these roles perform them to the highest standards
People in key positions have many others depending on them so it’s important to motivate them to work out to the best of their ability for the good of the whole organisation
They argue that we can tell social positions are most important by:
- Functional uniqueness
A position is functionally unique if one person or a small number could carry out the role such as cleaners who are not unique, but neurosurgeon are as they specialised after years of training so deserve higher than cleaners
- Degree of dependence of others
Others may depend on the consultant surgeon to do their jobs
Functionalists argue that CEOs of large companies deserve their high salaries as hundreds, thousands of people depend on their unique talents such as shareholders, employees and customers
Tumin: A Critique of Davis and Moore
Is it possible to determine the functional importance of a position?
Meaning a low paid cleaner who ensures the operating theatre is disinfected is just as important as the actual surgeon
Is there consensus about what rewards?
Arguably there is conflict and resentment about unequal distribution of rewards such as income
Power and Rewards?
Argued that high pay of some jobs such as top business executives reflects their power rather than agreement
Pool of talent
They seem to assume that only a small number of people have the unique talents to perform top jobs
Whereas many people have the ability but have no experiences or opportunities
Is training a sacrifice?
They suggest higher rewards are needed to motivate people to undergo long training needed for top jobs
In reality going to university has its own rewards such as freedom and the chance to learn what we are interested in
Motivation
They seem to assume that only monetary rewards motivate people to do demanding jobs
Does not account for people who may be motivated by altruism or a sense of service
Dysfunctions of stratification
He points out the stratification is helping society to run smoothly so often creates hostility, suspicion and mistrust between different sections of society
Modern industrial societies are meritocracies
Achieve the top positions do so on the basis of merit rather than family background and inheritance
First part of this chapter demonstrates not everyone in UK society has the same life chances
Access to top positions if often denied to those from lower classes as much because of lack of opportunity as because of lack of ability or merit
1960s, functionalist approaches to stratification became unfashionable among most sociologists as the issues raised by critics
Many sociologists turned to the ideas of Marx and weber for inspiration
In 1980s the rise of neoliberal or new right approaches in politics and sociology led to a renewal of support for functionalist views
Evaluation of Functionalism
They exaggerated the degree of consensus about rewards as there is evidence that substantial resentment exists in UK society with regard to the salaries earned by groups such as bankers as they are subjected to austerity measures in form of pay freezes
Unequal rewards may be a product of some groups to increase their rewards regardless of consensus
Top of stratification system is not only occupied by those with functionally important jobs
Occupied by those who live off inherited wealth and by celebrities
Evidence suggest not all who occupy top jobs are most talented as they achieve these positions as the UK is not really a meritocracy in which there is authentic social mobility
Family connections, the ability to pay for exclusive and expensive private education
Some argue that it is not possible to say that one occupational position is more functional than another
Could be argued that the cleaner who ensures that the operating theatre is free from bacteria is just as important as the surgeon
Don’t acknowledge the dysfunctions of stratification such as poverty which lowers life expectancy and increases risk of morality from stroke and cancer
Some evidence that stratification creates a culture of envy, alienation, resentment and that stratification that can quickly turn into criminality and riots that can undermine social order
New Right
From 1980s onwards they emerged
Revival of 19th century liberalism which believed that the economic system worked best when it was based on a free market
British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and US president Ronald Ragon and George Bush have been seen to be strongly influenced by neo-liberalism in their policies
New right ideas have generally not been popular with sociologists as they emphasise the importance of the individual and free choice
Sociologists tend to see individuals as always operating in a social context and making choices influenced by their socialisation and the norms of the groups which they belong
Some sociologists have been influenced by New Right thinkers
Saunders: In Defence of Inequality
Believed that inequality is the price to be paid for the effectiveness of the neo-liberal free market economy that has delivered the economic growth
He does not see stratification as an inevitable part of all societies
Argues that society based on social equality would only be possible so considerable force was used which ensure that everyone did their jobs to the best of their abilities as they would not motivate by economic rewards
Opposed to some forms of equality
Argues that it is right and just that everyone enjoys legal equality
Supports the principle of equality of opportunity so similar to the functionalist ideas of meritocracy
Third type of equality, equality of outcomes the he rejects
This involves everyone being rewarded in the same way whether they deserve it or not
Like the functionalists, so he argues that a degree of inequality is desirable and functional in order to motivate people to compete as long as everyone has an equal opportunity to take part in competition
Argues equal opportunity is important as all talent needs to be encouraged as belief in meritocratic principles means that people are more willing to accept inequality as they can see it as the result of fair competition
Class stratification and inequality that it produces is a necessary by product of society’s demand for the latest consumer innovations
Critical attempts by left wrong governments so they try and equalise society as he sees them as misguided
Similarly, attempts to ensure that working-class children do as well as middle class children are mistaken as he argues that they are probably more able and intelligent and deserve to do better than working class
Critics of Saunders argue that it is mistaken to assume that capitalist societies based on the free market necessarily offer individuals more freedom than sociologists or communist societies which seek to make people equal
System of slavery in parts of USA in early19th century the apartheid system of south Africa where black people was denied the same opportunities as whites
Military dictatorships such as Chile in 1980s as were all based on free market capitalism but were extremely oppressive in terms of treatment of certain social groups
Criticisms made by tumin of functionalist theories of stratification could also be applied to Saunders and new right
Murray: The Underclass
American political scientists Charles Murray (1984) argued US government policies of providing welfare benefits for group such as the unemployed and lone-parent families were creating a dependency culture so poor people were given no motivation to better themselves
Allowed to remain dependent on the state
Result was the creation of the underclass of people trapped at the bottom of society
We’re not only a drain on taxpayers paying on their benefits but also tended to poorly socialise their children as meaning they generally underachieved at school and turned too crime
Visited Britain and argued that there were signs that Britain too was developing an underclass (1989)
Suggested that rising rates of births outside marriage, crime and youth unemployment were all signs that the irresponsible attitudes found in the underclass
Reduction in welfare benefits and less governments intervention to reduce poverty arguing that this did more harm than good
Like new right thinkers, Murray argued disadvantaged social groups such as lone parents and unemployed needed to be encouraged to stand on their own feet rather than expecting that state to support them
Attracted considerable support from some politicians in British conservative party
Highly controversial and has been criticised by many British sociologists
Poor people tend to suggest only a minority have the kind of attitudes described by Murray as a typical of the underclass
Without jobs and on benefits want to work and earn a decent living
Unclear who exactly Is responsible for alleged problems created by the underclass
Unemployment and lone parents for behaving irresponsibly
At other time he blames the welfare state for encouraging kind of behaviour by giving benefits to those who are underserving
Focuses on those at the bottom end of society
He makes no connection between the wider pattern of social class inequality and the growing gap between rich and poor in trying to understand why poverty is a growing problem in both Britain and USA
Marxists and Weberian sociologists would argue that it is the working of the capitalist system as it leads to poverty and inequality
Blaming the poor for their own poverty is simply blaming the victims of the system
Evaluating the New Right
Studies of the poor and long term unemployed do not support Murrays view that a distinct underclass united by a shared and deviant value system exists
Evidence suggest that the poor are not workshy
Many poor people actually hold down more than one job as the Low Pay Unit argues low pay is the main course of poverty
Poverty is not self-imposed by individual weakness but shaped by social forces that are beyond the control of the individual such as globalisation
Murray has been accused of scapegoating the poor and distracting attention away from the real causes of poverty such as the growing inequality between rich and poor in western societies
Marxism
Karl Marx saw the economic system as the basis for all societies
Structuralists theory as Marx believed that the only way to understand inequality in capitalist societies was to examine how structures such as economy or infrastructure interact with others
Different societies have different kinds of economic systems or modes of production
According to Marx the earliest human societies were based on primitive communism where all members worked together to obtain what they needed such as hunting and gathering
Societies evolved and a more specialised division of labour developed so class relationships emerged
Ancient societies like Greece and rime there was a division between masters and slaves and under feudalism in medieval Europe between landowners and serfs
His work focused on capitalist societies like modern Britain
Capitalism emerged from feudalism between 16th and 19th century as goods began to be mass produced in factories and steam power was used to drive modern machinery
Gave rise to two new classes:
- The bourgeoisie – who invested their wealth in financing the new industrials age
- Proletariat – majority of society who owned no wealth and were forced to sell labour for wages
Bourgeoisie were ruling class as they owned the means of production which generates their wealth
Meant that they controlled political system and cultural institutions that shaped people’s ideas such as media and education system
Class Conflict
Marx argued that though the bourgeoisie and the proletariat depend on one another, so their relationship is based on conflict or class struggle
workers create the wealth of the bourgeoisie and only a they create comes back to them in wages
Marx, the workers are exploited by their employers who seek to keep wages low and profits high
He argued capitalism suffered from a series of inherent contradictions or problems which would eventually lead to downfalls:
- Polarisation of social classes
Divide between working class and capitalism would grow steadily wider as the bourgeoisie tied to drive down wages and increase profits
Intermediate classes such as small business owners would be driven out of business by increasingly powerful big businesses further widening the divide between the two main classes
- Alienation
So, workers would not be able to find any satisfaction or contentment as they would have no control over their own work as being used as commodities to increase production and profits
Outside work, people would be encouraged to find satisfaction in consumer goods and materialism rather than in real human relationships
- Economic Crisis
He argued that capitalist economics tend to suffer for periodic crisis
Competition between companies creates boom periods but these are evitable followed by recessions
Eventually, a crisis would lead to the collapse of the whole capitalist system
The Overthrow of Capitalism
Marx argued the working class had the potential to overthrow capitalism as the workers were in majority and had only to realise their potential by uniting in a revolution
To achieve this, they had to throw off what Marx called false class consciousness and become a class itself
Marx argued that the capitalism class perpetuated an ideology or series of ideas that justified capitalism and its inequalities through the political system, law, mass media, religious beliefs and educational system
Working class realised the nature of the exploitation, so Marx convinced they would rise up and overthrow capitalism
He believed that a new economic system called communism would replace capitalism where the means of production would be shared by the whole community
Everyone would be expected to contribute something to society so according to their ability and would receive what they needed in terms of food, accommodation, health care and according to the needs
This would mean that social classes based on economic inequalities would disappear and communism would result in a classless society
Evaluation of Marxism
Had a huge influence on political thought and inspired rise of socialism and communism so leading to revolutions in countries like Russia and china
Marx is also influenced sociologists who have used his ideas to analyse the workings of capitalist’s societies and the nature of social class inequalities of them
Many sociologists who do not see themselves as Marxists draw on some of his key concepts often combining them with ideas derived from the work of Weber
Extensive criticism since the fall of communist regimes in eastern Europe in 1990s which led many societies was even more oppressive system than capitalism and simply did not deliver what it promised
- Economic Determinism
He argued that all societies can be explained in terms of the economic system and economic relationships
People think or behave certain ways for cultural reasons
He emphasis on economic and social class inequalities also tends to ignore the importance of other types of inequality such as those based on gender or ethnicity
- Middle class
He largely dismissed the importance of classes situated between the bourgeoisie and proletariat such as small business owners who run businesses on behalf of the capitalists
Critics point out than rather than shrinking or being absorbed into the 2 main classes and these groups have grown in size and importance meaning they should be talking about a middle class
- Class consciousness and revolution
Saw the downfall of capitalism in advance industrial societies such as Britain, Germany and USA as inevitable
In reality, communists’ revolutions have usually occurred in relatively under-developed societies such as Russia, China and Cuba
In western societies there is little sign of class consciousness
- Success of capitalism
Capitalism societies seem to have flourished despite their inherent contradictions
Through capitalist economics tend to go through a cycle of boom and bust so in most cases discontent created by economic problems is contained
Most western societies the working class have enjoyed rising livings standards and access to ever wider consumer goods while the political system of liberal democracy associated with many capitalist societies allows everyone to elect their own governments and enjoy political freedoms and human rights
In Defence of Marxism
Modern Marxists have argued that despite these criticisms that the theory is still relevant to understanding social class inequalities in capitalist societies
Continuing Importance of Social Class Inequality
Writing in 1970s, Marxists sociologists John Westergaard and Henrietta Resler (1976) argued there was little evidence of class divisions in British society disappearing and suggested that inequalities could only be understand as the result of way capitalist operates
Arguably class division have actually widened since the 1970s
Proletarianization of the Middle Class
Sociologists claim that as the gap between the rich and poor widens
Marx’s prediction about polarisation is coming true
American sociologists Harry Braverman (1974) argues that many so-called middle-class workers have in reality been de-skilled
So reduces the control such workers have over work processes and also means that employers can pay them lower wages
Result of their process of proletarianization but more and more workers who might formally have been regarded as middle class are reduced to the same class position as the working class or proletariat
Neo-Marxism
Tired to develop and adapt Marx’s ideas to deal with some of the criticism made of Marx’s ideas
Gramsci (1971) developed the concept of hegemony to explain why the working class in western European countries had not risen up in revolution
He argued that the ruling class rarely need to use force to exert power because they rule through persuasion
Hegemony means using cultural and political means to encourage enough of the working class to side with the ruling class and capitalist system to ensure the stability of the economic system
Involves using institutions such as media and education to control people’s minds
Gramsci argued that this hegemony is never complete as many working-class have dual consciousness and are to some degree aware of inequalities and injustices of capitalism
Gramsci called left wing intellectuals to build up on this awareness to create a greater class consciousness and ultimately lead the working class to a revolution
Globalisation and Transnational Corporations
Sociologists argue that capitalism has been transformed since Marx was writing in 19th century by the process of globalisation
Increasingly, big businesses such as IBM, BP and Coco-Cola in global economy often controlling assets spread across a number of countries and transitional corporations
Largest TNCS have annual sales in excess of the gross national income of many of the poorer countries in the world
According to Leslie Sklair (2003) nation states now find it difficult to control the activates of TNCs giving greater power than national governments
From this perspective those who control TNCs have become a global ruling class
Weberian Theory
Derive from the work of the German sociologists Max Weber
Conflict theories
Saw inequalities in society as based on the struggle between inequalities in society as based on the struggle between different groups to secure resources such as wealth
Argued that status and power were also resources that could be unequally distributed
Leading critic of Marx, he was sceptical as to whether a revolution resulting in the overthrow of capitalism would occur in western societies
Suggested that communism might end up being just as oppressive as capitalism
Stratification
Marx’s views of capitalism emphasised economic divisions and the class struggle as the basis for stratification
Weber (1948) suggested that there were 3 dimensions to social stratification – social class, status and party – in some societies, economic or class divisions would not necessarily be the most important of these
Social Class
Weber defined a social class as a group who share a similar market situation
Members of a social class receive similar economic rewards
Members of the social class also share similar life chances
Weber agreed with Marx that there was a basic economic division between the property owners and those who sold their labour for wages
But criticised him for failing to explain the status differences that exist within social class strata such as within upper class old wealth symbolised by the royal family and new wealth by celebrities
Argued that there was a further division within each of these 2 groups
As a result, he suggested that in a capitalist society there are 4 main social classes:
- Propertied upper class – wealthy owners of bus business
- Property-less white-collar workers – better market situation than manual workers because of their skills and educational qualifications and form middle class
- Pretty bourgeoisie – owners of small businesses so weber did not see this class as disappearing or merging into the working-class
- Manual working class – poorest market situation as they possess neither wealth nor valuable educational qualifications that could be used to improve their market situation
Status
Individuals may identify themselves as part of a social class and develop class consciousness
Weber suggested that in some circumstances people with a common status situation may form a stronger group identity
Status refer to the distribution of social honour so how much respect a person receives from others and whether they are seen as superior or inferior to others
Most important cause of stratification and as a privilege or social honour
Amount of respect a person receives from society which might be expressed in economic reward or political deference
Lack of status can be subjected to prejudice and discrimination from those with status
Linked to a person’s economic or class position but may also derive from other things such as their ethnicity, religion or lifestyle
Some with a relatively low-class position may achieve a high status because of their sporting achievements or through raising money for charity
Weber argued that while social class maybe relatively unimportant for many people as a source of identity, individuals are usually very aware of their status situation and tend to identify with others of a similar status
Weber acknowledged that in capitalist societies class and status are closely linked to wealth and income as major source of status
Pointed out within social classes, status distinctions may be important
He believed status could be derived from a range of different sources
In UK it tends to be linked to a person’s socio-economic position or social class although it may also be linked to legal authority
Status may originate in tradition such as the royal family
Men have more status than woman as these societies derives from patriarchy which itself may be a product of men’s ability to use violence against woman, tradition and male dominance
Status is from power such as in south Africa between 1948 and 1990 the white minority controlled political and military power and was able to impose apartheid on the majority black population
Party
Weber defined parties as groups who were concerned with exercising power or influencing decision-making such as trade unions and pressure groups
Parties are much broader than conventional political parties
Groups such as trades unions that seek to improve the wages and conditions of specific groups of workers or pressure groups such as Greenpeace, RSPCA or CND
Linked to class interests such as many trade unions represent groups within the working class
Pressure groups often draw their members from all social classes
Represent specific status groups such as stonewall campaigns for the rights of lesbian, gay and bisexual groups
Evaluation of Weberian Theory
Adopted by many sociologists as it allows them to create more complex and multi-dimensional models of how society is stratified
Weber points out that people may come together and identify with others not just on the basis of economic interests but also because of the shared status position or shared political goals
Inequalities are often based on economic factors it could be argued that they have much more to do with individuals’ social status
Also be a basis for forming parties
Main criticism of Weber’s approach comes from Marxists who argue that focusing on multiple social classes and different dimensions of inequality obscures the fundamental importance of class divisions in a capitalist society
Marxists argue that encouraged as a means of divide and rule by the ruling class and that the class struggle and conflicts over economic interests
Weber’s ideas have had considerable influence on modern sociologists
- Multi-class models
Most sociologists interested in social class today adopt a multi-class model rather than Marx’s 2 class model
- Social mobility and life chances
Weber’s ideas that social class affects life chances has influenced a whole variety of research on the link between social class and educational achievement, health inequalities and opportunities for social mobility
- Social movements
A number of sociologists argued that in late 20th and early 21st century, social class has become less important in politics
New social movements have arisen such as the woman’s movement, naturalistic movements, peace movements and environmentalism
Seen to support Weber’s views that parties and political conflicts will not always be based on a class struggle between owners’ property and the property-less as claimed by Marx
Feminism
Focused primarily on gender inequalities and are discussed further in the next chapter
Some feminists have also been highly critical of traditional sociological theories of class for neglecting woman and gender inequalities
Pamela Abbot (1990) criticises Goldthorpe’s (1980) study of social mobility for completely ignoring woman
Abbot argues that there is a need to study woman’s social mobility as woman’s experiences of work are different from men
With regard to social mobility, feminists argue that the existence of the glass ceiling so patriarchal bias in the workplace which prevents talented woman being promoted so assists male social mobility
The fact that woman actually have lower rates of absolute mobility because they have less chance of reaching top jobs helps to boost men’s chances of upward mobility
This has encouraged more recent studies of social mobility to include both woman and men in their research
Some feminists also argue that social classifications such as the Hope-Goldthorpe scale are based around men’s occupations and are not well suited to exploring the class situation of woman
Led to some researchers to develop new classifications such as the surrey scale which differentiates between woman and men in different occupational classes more effectively
Arber, Dale and Gilbert have attempted to construct classifications which are gender neutral and reflect woman’s different levels of commitment to work
However, classifications have proved difficult to construct to everyone’s satisfaction
Still unclear whether the class signed to woman provides a meaningful insight into their experiences or life chances
Ken Roberts argues that we can no longer assume that woman share a class position with their male partners as woman are increasingly choosing to remain single even when they become mothers
Men also die younger than woman so many households are made up of widowed elderly woman who are less likely to have an occupational pension and consequently are more likely to be living on the margins of poverty
Postmodernism
Argue that class is losing its significance in contemporary society
Argue that theories of class developed by writers such as a Marx and Weber in 19th century to describe modern societies are no longer relevant
As people in 21st century see themselves as individuals and not part of a social class
Jan Pakulski and Malcolm Waters (1996) argue that in advanced capitalist societies people are now stratified by cultural rather than economic differences
People now group themselves together according to symbolic values
Ulrich Beck (1992) argues that the class conflicts of early industrial societies concerned the distribution of wealth, reflecting the fact that many people suffered from poverty and lack of job security
Since 1970s economically advanced societies, most people have enough to meet their material such as food and housing
This led to a focus on new problems and conflicts in risk society
Beck means that the central problem of society is no longer creating and disturbing wealth but managing the risks created by science and technology such as nuclear energy
Beck argued that many risks affect everyone, rich and poor the same
People’s awareness of social class and willingness to act together based on shared class interest has demised
People have become individualised and more concerned with their personal interest
People come together to change things politically, it is more likely to be as part of temporary conditions as groups who act together as they have a concern about 1 issue and then break up when they achieve their goals
Beck concludes that class is paling into insignificance and people are adopting much more individualised identities