Functionalism
Argue that early ethnic inequalities experienced by immigrants were the product of their cultural differences and relatively low level of skills
They are optimistic that in a meritocratic society ethnic minority would decline as immigrants adopted the norms and values of mainstream society and climbed their way up career ladder
Believe western societies are both meritocratic and based on value consensus or shared values
Early functionalists attempt to explain stratification by ethnicity suggested that as the children of early migrants to Britain assimilated into British culture
Economic gap between BAME groups and white majority widened and disaffected of BAME youth started to be expressed in inner city riots in 1970s
Functionalism had to adapt positions to explain between ethnic groups
The Host – Immigration Model – Patterson (1965)
Presented Britain as a stable, homogeneous and orderly society with a high degree of consensus over norms and values
Basically stable, homogenous and orderly society with a high degree of consensus over values and norms
The social equilibrium was disrupted by the arrival of immigrants in 1950s, who subscribed to very different sets of norms and values
Argues that resulted in a culture clash between the immigrants and the host community
Interpreted these clashes in terms of understandable fears and anxieties on the part of the host community
Claimed the host were not racists just very unsure about how to act towards newcomers
Understandable fears and anxieties on the part of the host community
Patterson suggested there was 3 causes of ethnic inequality
- Hosts culture fear of cultural difference of the immigrant strangers and social change they would bring to society
- Hosts culture resentment of having to compete with immigrants for scarce resources such as jobs and housing
- Failure of immigrants to assimilate
Patterson theory implied that ethnic minorities continued to practise their native cultural norms and values in public domain could potentially experience some hostility from their host culture
Cultural strangeness had the potential to make the host culture anxious
Patterson was reasonably optimistic about the long-term prospects for racial harmony
Thought that Britain’s immigrants would eventually move toward full cultural assimilation by shedding their old ethnic values and taking on the values of the host society
Evaluation of Patterson
Emphasises the dynamic nature of ethnic relationships, her critics would argue that she is naïve to assume all ethnic minority groups assimilate into British culture
Postmodernists argue that Britain is a multicultural society in which different ethnic cultures co-exist side by side and this diversity should be celebrated
Marxists would criticise Patterson for ignoring the significant role of capitalism plays within society and how the division of people by race helps to maintain the capitalist structure
So, assimilation will remain an idealistic goal that is impossible to achieve under capitalism
Assimilation was always going to be an impractical goal until racism in all its varied forms was outlawed by legislation
Now illegal to discriminate against ethnic minorities in all walks of life
Marxism
Pessimistic view of race relations that stresses that immigration serves the needs of the capitalist class for labour and used to divide workers from each other so easy to control
Capitalism prefers conflict between ethnic groups as it is beneficial to the ruling class
Cox (1970)
Stressed the idea that race is itself a human creation
Racism is socially constructed by those who control the means of production in order to justify the exploitation of less powerful groups
Observes that in USA a 20th century capitalism developed corporate interests connived with the unions to exclude black people from union membership
Racism is always something that is developed by exploiters against the exploited
He argues that racism has its origins in the development of capitalism so with its need to systematically exploit labour power
He argues that early capitalism went hand in hand with colonialism
European nations conquered other areas of the world, so they were able to exploit the workforce in those colonies and they justified their actions through racism by claiming white Europeans were superior to other races
He argues that if racism is developed to justify exploitation so it cannot be developed by those who are exploited
Not only white people who are capable of racism, but it was white people who developed capitalism, so they developed racism first
If capitalism had not developed, then the world may never have experienced racial prejudice
Concludes that racism is a type of ideology as a set of powerful beliefs that aim to asset the superiority of white people in 18th and 19th centuries and which aimed to justify the imperial goals of global capitalism
As the ideology in 18th century medical belief in a psychological condition called drapetomania, popularised by Cartwright that caused slaves to run away from their asters = pseudo-science
He was criticised as race blind as his theory is more focused on capitalism and his evidence that racism is deliberately constructed by the capitalist class is not convincing
Evaluation of Cox
His work was useful as it details the economic imperatives of migration for the capitalist class, critics would argue his views are too simplistic
This is difficult as it proves that racism is a capitalist ideology and it may benefit capitalism in the long term but no evidence that it functions exclusively as an ideological apparatus
Critics argue that Cox does not treat race as an important factor in its own right as he mainly interested in economic differences caused by capitalism = race blind
Castles and Kosack (1973)
Argue that ethnic minorities are part of the exploded working class and this that determines their fate in capitalist society
See racial conflict, discrimination and inequality as symptoms as deliberately encouraged by the capitalist class for 3 ideology:
- Legitimisation so racism helps to justify low pay and poor working conditions as ethnic minority workers are generally presented by employers, trade unions and mass media
They are reserve army of labour so only taken on in large numbers during periods of economic boom
This surplus of labour power is regarded as necessary by the capitalist class as it keeps wage costs down as well as weakening by the bargaining power of white workers
- Divide and rule so if we unite together, they are a stronger position to campaign for better wages and conditions
they argue that racism benefits employers as it divides the workforce
white workforce will fear losing their jobs to the cheaper labour of ethnic minority workers
employers play on these fears during pay negotiations to prevent white workers from demanding higher wages or going on strike
- Scapegoating is when a society is troubled by serve social and economic problems so widespread frustration, aggression and demands for radical change can result
Instead of directing this anger at the capitalist class or economic system
White people are encouraged by racists ideology and agents such as mass media to blame relatively vulnerable groups
Ethnic minorities become the scapegoats for the social and economic mismanagement of capitalism
This process works in the interest of the wealthy and powerful capitalist class as it protects them from criticism and deflects attention away from inequality and the need for radical change
Found immigrants were concentrated in low-skilled and low-paid manual jobs that carry out in poor working conditions
Many are unemployed
Claimed that in Britain, the treatment of immigrants ultimately derived from the need in capitalist societies for the reserve army of labour
So, it is necessary to have a surplus of labour power in order to keep wage costs down since the greater the overall supply of labour power, the weaker the position of existing workers
Believed that capitalists economies were inherently unstable
They underwent periods of boom and slump and a reserve army of labour needed to be available to be hired and fired as the fluctuating fortunes of the economy dictated
After WW2 capitalist societies exhausted their indigenous reserve army of labour – woman
Countries in Europe turned to immigrant labour to provide a necessary cheap pool of workers who could profitable exploited
Arrival immigrants led to the working class being divided into 2 groups with the indigenous white population becoming the top layer of the working class and immigrant workers
This makes them the most disadvantaged group within the working class
They argued this divide and rule tactic was beneficial to the ruling class as it suppressed the overall wage level of working classes and immigrants could be scapegoated
Situation is also meant that the working class become too divided to unite and overthrow the capitalist’s system
Evaluation of Castles and Kosack
Offer a good illustration as to how workers are divided from one another through racial divisions
Critics argue it would be a mistake to think that all ethnic minorities are disadvantaged in UK
De-industrialisation has changed the nature of economic immigrants historically, so the skill level of immigrants was not a concern to the state as manual workers
They needed to plug gaps in the workforce so whereas in recent years immigration laws have become a lot tighter
Consequently, economic immigrants tend to possess higher level skills and knowledge
A study about migrant labour and is more relevant to the first generation of minorities that arrived in Britain in 1950s
Clear how it explains ethnic inequalities 60 years on
Ignores how ethnic minorities have been economically and politically successful such as powerful media which is a list of Britain 100 most influential black people including male and females
Miles (1989)
Neo-Marxists (1989) argue that racism was originally used to justify the exploitation of non-Europeans in various parts of the world
Argues that by the end of colonialism so the type of racism that saw different types of biological grouping as superior or inferior to others was replaced with nationalism, so individuals saw nation as inferior to others
Miles influenced by Weberian theory as he argues the concept of status should be used with class to explain racism and racial inequality
He argues that the class position of ethnic minorities is complicated by the fact that they are treated by white society as culturally and socially different
Ethnic minorities have fallen victims to racism in some domains of society
At the same time, ethnic minorities themselves may set themselves apart from the white majority by stressing and celebrating their own cultural uniqueness such as African Caribbean may stress black power through membership of Rastafarian groups
He argues as a result of these two processes, ethnic minority groups become members of racialised class fractions
Racialised lass fractions are further reinforced when the white working class stress the importance of their ethnicity and nationality through prejudice and discrimination
When ethnic minorities react to such racism by stressing their own ethnicity even more by observing their cultural and religious traditions overtly
He argues there is evidence that increasing numbers of ethnic minorities are entering the ranks of the professional middle class through this is often into the lower middle-class position
Points out that racism probably means that many white middle-class professionals may not accept the fact that middle class ethnic minorities have the same status as them
Many white working classes may not perceive middle class ethnic minorities do not experience social class inequality, so they are not immune to experiencing status inequality, so class and status are not inextricably linked
Evaluation of Miles
He recognises the importance of status and how it can cut across class lines which helps to explain some apparent divisions between the white majority and ethnic minorities
He downplays possible cooperation between both groups in trade union movements where people work together to ensure their rights as workers
Postmodernists reject Weberian and Marxist’s explanations that seek to generalise and offer blanket explanations for ethnic groups as a whole
Weberian Theory
Recognised the importance in the difference between the bourgeoisie and working class
Also argued that differences within the working class were also significant
Weber had strong influence on explanations for racial discrimination and inequality
He was keen to point out that stratification in modern society could occur on the basis of non-economic factors too such as status and party
He also defined class in terms of market situation and work situation
Classes are simply groups that share a similar market situation and work situation and these situations combined can affect a person’s life chances
Argue that modern societies are characterised by status inequality
Status groups can be competitive and aim to achieve social closure which means that they try to monopolise privilege and exclude other groups from their positions of privilege
So, ethnicity this means potentially status and power are in the hands of majority of ethnic groups
So, makes it difficult for ethnic minority groups to compete equally for jobs and housing
Observed that status could divide a class group or cut across class differences
He also referred to a party in his work
So, can be defined as a group that forms in order to gain power and in doing so reflects and promotes their own interests
Organisation such as trade union are examples
Reflect the idea that status groups, as well as economically based class groups can form the basis for political action
Trade unions are dominated by white members which can often lead to ethnic minorities vices not being heard
Shows the structured inequality can occur as a result of cultural differences as well as economic differences
Status and power are in the hands of the majority ethnic group so making it difficult for ethnic minorities group to compete equally for jobs, housing etc…
Evaluation of Weberian Theory
Useful as it suggests that there are other sources of power besides economic power such as status derived from culture
Provides useful insights into the nature of ethnic differences in contemporary society
Critics argue that Weberian theory still does not provide any distinguish between the relative importance of the different types of inequality
The Dual Labour Market Theory – Barron and Norris (1979)
Organised in the form of a dual labour market
Demonstrates how racial prejudice and discrimination can be seen in the distribution of ethnic minorities in labour force
Distinguished between the primary labour market consisting of well paid, secure jobs with good promotional prospects
Primary labour sector is characterised by secure, high status and well-paid jobs with long term promotion prospects
Jobs in this sector are monopolised by white men
Secondary labour market consisting of the worst jobs, lowest pay and worse conditions
After detailed analysis of both labour markets they reported that white men dominated the primary labour market and ethnic minorities were concentrated in secondary labour due to lower cultural status
Their theory acknowledged their cultural discrimination exists and that stratification is not purely economic so the existence of status groups can occur of the basis of cultural factors
Legal and political framework supporting black and Asian people is weak
Trade unions are generally white dominated and have accused of favouring white workers and less interested in protecting the rights of black workers
Race relations act of 1976 were supposed to protect black people from discriminatory practices which has not worked as effectively as it could have
Ethnic minorities are less likely than white workers to obtain primary sector jobs as employers may subscribe to racists beliefs about their unsuitability and practise discrimination against them
Point out legal and political framework supporting black people is weak
Trade unions are generally white dominated and have been accused of favouring white workers and less interested in protecting the rights of black workers
Evaluation of Barron and Norris
Their theory is useful as it provides and insight into how the labour market is divided
Theory ignores the fact that there are some ethnic minorities in crucial primary labour market position so evident by Britain’s 100 rich list
Current richest person in UK, Lakshmi Mittal comes from ethnic minorities
Fail to recognise the situation for ethnic minority woman is worse than it is for ethnic minority men as they are not only concentrated into the secondary labour market as they experienced the concrete ceiling
Davidson (1997) used the term concrete ceiling to describe the embedded discrimination that prevents ethnic minority woman being promoted
While white woman has the opportunity to break through the glass
Rex and Tomlinson (1979)
Birmingham in west midlands revealed that the material disadvantage experienced by ethnic minorities in the area was great, so they cut them off from white working class
They found that ethnic minorities formed a separate underclass beneath the white working class and experienced disadvantage with regard to the labour market, housing and education
These worsened by the hostility directed at them by white society
They argued that a black underclass had been formed, consisting of people who felt marginalised alienated and frustrated
The black underclass experience of status inequality was further compounded by them feeling as if they had been socially excluded from the standard of living that most other members of society took for granted
Overzealous policing as they experienced as harassment
Feelings had the potential to occasionally erupt in the form of inner-city riots
Concluded that in a capitalist society, the underclass is heavily concentrated within the underclass
Young black people may feel both socially excluded from the standard of living most other members of society take for granted and experience policing as harassment
Evaluation of Rex and Tomlinson
Though their work is useful in explaining some of the experiences of the black underclass, they may be criticised for over-emphasising ethnic minority groups as passive victims of racism
Position of ethnic minority groups are changing and some groups, particularly Chinese and Indian people are outperforming all of their other ethnic counterparts at school
New right would blame the culture of some ethnic minorities for the poverty and unemployment that they experience
Welfare dependency in particular may be an issue for many politicians
Overlap between black and white population in terms of poverty and unemployment as they are a constant threat of racism does suggest that some members of the white working class do not recognise the common economic situation, they share
Black Feminism
Critical of mainstream feminism for being dominated by white middle-class feminists
Developed out of dissatisfaction with other types of feminism
Within the media there has been much celebration of the feminist resurgence in 21st century
White middle-class young woman is often seen as the ones spearheading this new wave of activity
Black feminists argue that the high-profile campaign does not reflect the most pressing needs of the majority of woman and ethnic minorities woman
The problem is not white feminists’ campaign, but they are given a focus and attention that over shadows the other work that feminists are engaged with
Majority of woman both in UK and across the globe do not live negatively impacted by sexism alone
Reality of black feminism so intersectionality is the idea that oppressions criss-cross and compound each other which is crucial
They have been able to point out the failings of the wider feminist’s movement which lie in its continual failure to capture and reflect the extreme differences in how woman live their lives
Abbott et al (2005) argue previous strands of feminism have been:
- Ethnocentric claiming to address issues concerning woman in general but only concentrate on woman experience derived by white middle class
- Perpetuated a victim ideology
- Practices theoretical racism
Brewer (1993)
Sees the basis of black feminists’ theory as an understanding of race, class and gender as simultaneous forces
Black woman suffers from disadvantages because they are working class, but their problems are more than the sum of these parts
Each inequality reinforces and multiples the other inequalities
Distinctive feature of black feminism is that it studies the interplay of race, class and gender in shaping the lives and restricting the life chances of black woman
Evaluation of Brewer
Has been useful in introducing the idea that differences between woman are as important as similarities and shared interests but can be accused of emphasising racial differences
Legislation such as equal pay act 1970, sex discrimination act 1975 and race relations act 1976 aim to prevent discrimination on the groups of class, race and gender
Legislations has helped to empower ethnic minority woman as demonstrated by youth cohort studies that clearly show that Indian and Chinese female pupils outperform all other ethnic groups
Mirza (1997)
Supports brewer by arguing that there is a need for a distinctive black feminism
She does not claim that they have a unique insight into what is true and what is not, but she does believe that this group can make an important contribution to the development of feminist’s theory
Black feminists challenged the distorted assumptions of dominant groups by drawing on their own experiences and in doing so can offer other ways of thinking and can invoke some measure
Actively challenged the dominant image of black woman as passive victims of racism, patriarchy and social class inequality
Images of dutiful wife and daughter, the enthusiastic hard worker, the sexually available exotic other, the controlling matriarch and the homogenised their world woman have undermined the fact that many black women are brave
Black feminists struggle in the fight of domestic violence, tried to overcome sexism and racism in school, developed alternative family forms in which woman have autonomy and challenged the activities of the police and immigration authorities
Evaluation of Mirza
Offers useful insight into how black woman can challenge the racism and sexism they experience in contemporary society so the fact that many ethnic minority women continue to experience pressures in the family to conform to traditional gender stereotypes
Connell (2009)
Stresses the link between black feminism and postcolonial feminism
Postcolonial feminism is concerned with explaining gender inequalities that were caused by colonialism mainly in developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America
Gender inequalities established in colonial times are often embedded in current attitudes towards race, ethnicity and gender
Would be wrong to base theories of gender upon the experiences of minority of woman in the world
He stresses the importance of developing feminist perspective that challenge the dominance of western feminism as they believe most woman live in majority world of southern countries
Challenged the dominance of western feminism and has accused it of acting in a colonial way as it assumes that the experiences of woman living in the developed world are typical
Evaluation of Connell
Postcolonial feminism has been invaluable in helping us to understand the organs of gender inequality but sometimes overemphasises the importance of colonialism rather than gender inequalities
The New Right
Losing Ground – Murray (1984)
Argues that in the USA it had a growing underclass that posed a serious threat to American society
Expressed concerns that governments policies were encouraging increasing numbers of Americans to become dependent on benefits
Claimed that during 1960s welfare reforms led to an increase in number of never married black single mothers and many black youths losing interests in getting a job
Argues that increases in levels of benefits were counterproductive as they discouraged self-sufficiency and were costly to tax payers
Visited Britain in 1989 and wrote an article which he argued that Britain also had developed an underclass
Defined the underclass in terms of behaviour
Black people in the USA were part of a disadvantage underclass as he was too generous welfare system which discouraged work
Evaluation of Murray
Focusing on cultural attributes of the working class, Murray ignored economic division that lead to the creation of underclass
He didn’t take a sympathetic approach, he blamed them for the predicament they find themselves in explaining their situation in terms of their own supposed aberrant behaviour
Sewell (1997)
Worked for many years with underachieving black youth has attempted to address the ethnic inequalities experienced by young African-Caribbean boys
Proved controversial and his is sometimes citied in support the new right writers such as Murray who claim that black people make up a large contingent of a criminal and welfare dependency
Does not sympathise or identify with this new right position
Echoes some of the arguments made by Murray in his study as he argues that a high proportion of African-Caribbean’s boys raised in lone-parents’ families in UK
Research highlights in 2001, 57% of African Caribbean families with dependent children were headed by lone-parent
Result of this black boy lacked the male role model and the discipline provided by a father figure
He argues that the absence of a male role model within the family makes young African-Caribbean boys more vulnerable to peer pressure such as go into gangs
This form on black masculinity is then reflected and reinforced by the media, with gangster rap and hip-hop fashions and news report emphasising black street crime and gun culture
He blames 3 factors for ethnic minorities:
- Believes African Caribbean families fail their boys as they lack fathers and boys lack positive role models
First factor has been interpreted to mean that he is blaming African Caribbean culture
- Identifies the failure of society to deal with the institutional racism that exists in some schools and police forces which mean that Black teenagers are stereotyped as potential troublemakers
- Identifies that media culture organised around the black music scene mainly rap which celebrates individualism, hyper-masculinity and materialism
Evaluation of Sewell
He does not label himself as new right theories, but his study reinforces some of the points made by new right theorists
Is study being controversial and has been attacked for what his critics see as blaming African Caribbean’s for inequalities that they experience
Accused of blaming black fathers for deserting their families, blaming youth for generating a subculture that leads to their own failure and blaming the black community for failing to support its young people
Critics argue that he diverted attention from what they see as the real cause of black underachievement – a racists society