Gerontology
Def. the scientific study of biological, psychological and sociological factors associated with old age and the aging process
Recent area of study and consequently sociological theories are in their early stages of development
Not all writers belong to a specific theory of thought
Consensus approaches tend to focus on age as an aspect of culture or how it contributes to the maintenance of social order
Sorts of approach tend to see inequality as functional or beneficial to society or to the needs of capitalism
Conflict theories such as Marxism and feminism tend to see age inequalities or experiences such as ageism as the product of the organisation or structure of capitalism and patriarchy respectively
Social action theories are interested in how individuals interpret their experience of childhood, youth and aging
Particularly interested in how and why social groups come to be negatively labelled
Consensus VS Conflict VS Social Action Theories
Consensus theorist such as functionalists believe the maintaining social order is important for society
Looking at inequality they will try and find a reason for it and focuses on a cause that is cultural such as the fault of the individual or groups norms and values
They will focus on the needs of the majority over the minority of society so stating inequality is functional
Conflict theories such as Marxists and feminism will always focus on the structural causes such as the needs of capitalism or the needs of patriarchy and find these as the cause for inequality
Social action theories will not look for macro reasons but a micro approach as looking for fragmented inequality and trying to locate the many variables that affect life chances
Consensus Theories
Focus on how inequality can be the victim fault
Elderly and the young may face inequality as they do not have the necessary skills that others have such as young people less likely to get high pay
Deserve less money due to having less skills and experience
View is agreed by ne wright who claim that inequality is a product of cultural causes such as blame the youth unemployment on a generation by calling them lazy and unskilled
Functionalism
Parsons (1977) stated that society can be understood through organic analogy as making clear importance of society’s stability
Through interconnected roles, the importance of institutions in society is to maintain social stability
Certain age groups have norms and values that could threaten social stability
Focus on society’s role in managing these issues as well as the cause of inequality at these times
Parsons and Eisenstadt focused on youth being a time for individuals of grow up and learn their new adult roles which are imperative for society’s stability
Parsons work is remembered by an analogy of a bridge, youth culture being a bridge from childhood to adulthood
Explains why some youth behave in a way that seems dysfunctional to society as it can allow more integrated society later
This stage of life allows for mistakes to be made and lessons to be learned
Some elderly people become less physically able to maintain their roles in society specifically in world of work
Piltcher 91995) suggested youth is a stage of transition that connects childhood to adulthood
So, age is important as a mechanism of social integration
Functionalists would view this as social roles and social stability
The elderly may need to change roles that they can no longer fulfil, new roles are needed
Currently in UK, the elderly has become an invaluable source of free childcare for many families, with grandparents caring for their children’s children
Eisenstadt agreed by writing different age groups learn new roles that lead to further cohesion and solidarity in society
Statham (2011) was commissioned by the department of education to look into this role that so many do take up
Disengagement theory
Cummings and Henry (1961) take consensus approach by explaining age inequality when looking at the elderly
Use to explain age inequality started with the idea that all people will die
Aging a person’s abilities are likely to deteriorate
Process happens there is a mutual need for individual to be relived of some of their responsibilities and roles
A functionalist would recognise that people leaving their role in society causes a gap that must be filled for social stability to be maintained
Process helps to manage that possible social instability
Process of social disengagement functions allow younger people to take place to take the place of the old in the specialised division labour within minimum disruption both social order and economic efficiency
Evaluation of Consensus Theories
Their assumption of homogeneity when looking at society and inequality
Not all elderly people deteriorate at the same age, or at all
Others claim that these views always look at the bright side so ignoring the negative experience of aging as not all elderly people are able to take on a new role and stay happy and fulfilled
Not all youths will be successfully guided by the agents of socialisation and may not leave deviant behaviour behind
Strong possibility that social order might be undermined by youth unemployment, low pay etc…
All these are likely to lead to more dependence on the family
Difference in transition to economic independence may be having a knock-on effect
Critics of disengagement theory point out retirement from work and society is often not voluntary this could lead to the neglect of the experience, skills and talents of older members
Conflict Theories
Marxism
Cheap pool of flexible labour, a reserve army labour
Tend to not have dependents and so are willing to work for low wages
Terms of full-time employment, their lack of experience legitimates low pay and competition for jobs keep wages low
Focus on the need for capitalism when trying to explain inequality
Youth re both an asset and issue to the needs for capitalism
They are an asset due to the energy and new skills that they provide such as technological skills
If they lack skills and experience, they can be a cheap source of labour due to minimum wages which is beneficial to the bourgeoisie and capitalist’s system
Elderly providing free childcare id good for capitalism as it means that the young and able will be able to work
Marx and other may have not discussed age inequality in great depth, their ideas can be applied to explaining age inequality
Reserve Army of Labour
Phase has been used by many and some claims that Engels used it first in 1845
Marx stated that a reserve army of labour was a necessary part of capitalism
Basis of the idea is that some members of society are a secondary source of labour
Marx stated that this was either the unemployed or under-employed
It can be applied to other groups such as young and the elderly
These groups can be sued to boom times as temporary or flexibility labour
Media discussions show there is a growing market of zero-hours contracts where employees are only given work when work is available but have to be free to work
Pensions and sick pay are not given
Those in the reserve for work are more likely to take up these contracts such as unemployed youth or elderly people looking to continue bring in some income post-retirement
Phillipson (1982) claimed that the elderly has historically been used as a reserve army of labour, but this has grown over the years
Suggests logic of capitalism which is about exploiting workers and consumers for profit is incompatible with the needs of the elderly
They are neglected by the capitalism system as they no longer have the disposable income or spending power which is attractive to capitalists
Can be seen as social constructed used to benefit the bourgeoise
Legitimation of Authority
Neo-Marxist’s such as Gramsci (1971) discuss the importance of how the bourgeoisie maintain authority
Political social and civil society can be applied to understanding the inequality faced by different age groups
False consciousness explains that people do not realise their exploitation often through concessions that they receive
Argued that small measures such as child benefit and pensions as a form
Creates a form of dependency, legitimating the need for the powers of authority
Elderly and youth do not question their exploitation through the labour market, accepting things such as 0-hour contracts
Political Economy Theory
Ideas focus on inequality as meeting the needs of the economy
Townsend (1981) and Phillipson (1982) used ideas to explain the inequality faced by the elderly
Phillipson argues this places the elderly in the negative position as a burden on economy
Capitalism needs to continually renew its workforce to ensure greater profit by using young workers who may be more productive
Serve the needs of capitalism this means having a system where elderly is institutionally marginalised
Happens through a process of institutionalised dependency such as through the elderly being made retired, the needs of the economy are then met as younger more productive employees
In reality a forced dependency then takes place whereby the elderly become dependent on society as they are denied access to work
This lowers their status, especially in society where status is dependent on relationships with the means of production
Argued that the inequality faced by the elderly need the needs of capitalism
Evaluation of Marxism and Neo-Marxism
Critics claim that Marxists and neo-Marxists theorists and research ignore the lack of a homogeneous experience of age
Studies seem to take a macro approach ignoring factors such as class, gender, nationalist, disability and wealth which affect experience
Aging population there has been a growth of the grey pound with the elderly as consumers as they can become an asset to the bourgeoisie and the economy
Feminism
Recently looking at unequal positions of woman has tried to see the relationship between age and gender and inequality
Arber and Ginn (1991) wrote that when looking at woman and inequality, factors such as age will affect their power and status
Itzin (1990) claimed that woman face a double standard devalued by society as their status is devalued after the menopause as well as retired age
Men’s status is directly related to employment whereas woman is linked to their reproductive cycle
In patriarchal society, woman’s status devalues after childbearing age
Older woman they lower status
So, they feel immense pressure to fight the signs of aging = cosmeticisation where woman is encouraged to improve their appearance
Aging men do not find the same pressures
Daly (1979) had similarities to many global practices that woman is made to comply with such as genital multination in woman are expected to confirm to certain physical standard but not such expectations are placed on men
Feminism explanations are:
- Feminists explanations tend to over-state the influence of patriarchy and may neglect alternative reasons such as poverty
- Feminists also make the mistakes of assuming that the experience of girls and woman is universally much the same – wealth and social class can help migrate effects of patriarchy
- Feminists may under-rate the pressure men feel to cosmeticise which suggests this is a commercial profit driven process rather than being an aspect of patriarchy
- Social action studies also suggest that woman choose to cosmeticise rather than being forced to do so solely by the stigma of getting old
Evaluation of Feminism
Missing the true cause of the inequality such as poverty
State that the structuralist, macro nature of much feminist’s work ignores that face that females whether old or young are not homogenous group and factors such as wealth and social class affect life chances
Males are going through a pressure of cosmeticize as FHM encourage males to stay looking young and fight the aging process
Argument that cosmeticisation is not forced process but one people choose believing they control the aging process for their own subjective reasons but not stigma of getting old
Social Actions Theories
They are micro in their perspective not macro, so it is best to organise their explanations around the cause of the inequality
Some look at economic and social capital as the cause, while others are more interested in the cause of a loss of social interaction or use in society
Victor argues that public attitudes towards the elderly may result in a self-fulfilling prophecy as the elderly may be forced into acting out an elderly role despite the fact, they report they don’t feel any different
They are aware that dressing or behaving so though they were younger would attract social derision
Chose to act according to how society viewed them
Tend to neglect the view that interaction and interpretation rarely exists independently of structural influences
Weberian theory
Importance source of status
Ageism is a reflection of the lack of status experienced by both groups and their poor market position
Elderly lack the technological skills required for the workplace
Retirement involves a loss of status, although Weberian point out that elderly people from upper-class such as Queen often retain their status as powerful individuals as their status is seen as important
Looked at inequality and while he was regarded as disciple of Marx as he felt to understand someone’s social position and complex nature of inequality
Looked at importance of market position as this can be used to explain low status of both the elderly and the young
If someone does not have the skills required than suffer low status but if they have the skills, they don’t suffer
Negatively Privileged Status group
Parkin (1968) when writing about ethnic minorities and inequality discussed the idea that some suffer in negatively privileged status groups
Ethnic minorities can be kept out of high-status privileged groups due to social segregation
Parkin claims some social groups such as ethnic minorities suffer in negatively privileged status group
He sees racism and ageism as functioning to socially segregate low status groups such as ethnic minorities and elderly from the rest of society
Elderly are socially segregated in the media they are invisibility from positive portrayal
Structurally caused inequalities
Activity Theory
Explanations of inequality using disengagement theory as some interactionists believe that staying mentally and physically active will increase one’s happiness
Similar to parsons’ ideas this looks at what happens when social norms withdraw social interactions from individuals
Maintaining social interactions reduces the negative experience of aging
Havinghurst (1961) published this theory in critique of disengagement theory arguing inequality is more about social interaction than age
He observes that regular social interaction is essential to staying mentally and physically active
However, retirement often means the elderly are forced to disengage from regular interaction with others
Stathams (2011) research on grandparents providing childcare may mean that continued social interaction may change the inequalities faced by some elderly who are isolated
Exchange Theory
Turner (1989) argues age discrimination is best understood in terms of status
In western societies, both the elderly and the young become stigmatised due to not having what it takes to gain high status
In society based on consumption high status if given to those who have material goods, if in western society both young and elderly are least likely to have material good, they will have low status
Reciprocity-maturation curve of aging to see that if groups are dependent, they then have low status
Gerontocracy where power and age are interlinked the elderly will have high status
Inequality is not only about economic capital but also due to the values of society
Shows that status disclose one’s position in society and is relative to that society
Age may be a factor that brings high and low status dependent on key values of society
Interactionists: Labelling
Question social construction on inequality
Negative labelling and stigmatisation of both elderly and the young by the media and other agents of social control and socialisation could be to create self-fulfilling prophecy
Is elderly are labelled as useless, lonely, dependent and unable to learn then those stereotypes become reality
Looking at cases of supposed age discrimination in the media as they believe they are them stereotypes and replace them with younger people
Stand Cohens (1972) work in moral panic
Ray et al argue that negative stereotypes or labelling about old age can impact on the way people react to again themselves
May view themselves as useless and unable to learn
Victor argues that negative labels about aging and the against discrimination that follows can cause negative age-related changes they see themselves as useless and in the way so take no positive counter action
Labelling theory suggest negative stereotyping of children and youth by teachers, police officers and newspaper may lead to self-fulfilling prophecy and deviancy amplification as young people internalise labels
Evaluation of Social Action Theories
All critiques of social action theories, there are some who believe that while these ideas attempt a micro approach considering the effects of other factors such as wealth and ethnicity but still fail to recognise the structural causes of inequality such as patriarchy and capitalism
Approaches are criticised for ignoring the institutional ageism that is at the basis of many laws and practices within a society
Postmodernists Theories
it is not a macro theory
look at disparity of experience of the elderly while others refute that old age is a time of inequality highlighting the advantages of aging in modern world
suffered by youth often blame the media for the creation of a youth culture agreeing with Cohens and his work with folk devils
Polemus (1997) focus of youth being a non-homogenous group shopping at the supermarket of style
He argues in 21st century is not a homogenous group so young people today shop in a global supermarket of style and construct their identity from a range of disparate sources
Owning this there is not one single postmodernists explanation for inequality offered by the young
Old age as a Positive time of Life
Ignores many changes in the contemporary UK
They make old age a positive time of life because they argue retirement allows people greater freedom and challenges such as University of the Third Age encourages older people to come together
Research shows the older people get the more they become invisible and marginalised looking at consumer culture shows a different picture
Advertising acronyms such as SKIER and GRUMPY show stereotypes may be changing
Grey pound is strong, and advertisers are focusing on getting that money
Laczko and Phillipson (1991) researched earl retirement and found that the inequality faced by some elderly people was due to wealth and not aging itself
Their work led to the idea that traditional explanations of age inequality focus too much on imaginary boundaries of age
Decisions of many who are wealthy enough to retire early show that retirement can be a positive experience
Blaikie (1999) discusses the idea of positive aging which agrees of the fourth age filled with active but leisure-based pursuits = chronological age, ageism, age-determinism inequality is less likely to shape people’s life experiences in 21st century
He suggests we have undergone social transformation from social experiences based on collective identities originating in social class and generation to an increasingly individualised and communists’ culture
The Mask of Old Age
Postmodernists focus on the experience of ageing
J.B. Priestley stated that aging was like someone had kidnapped him and made him old yet behind his appearance he had the same thoughts as when he was younger
Ideas were similar to wearing the mask as one thing on the outside another on the inside
Explanations suggests that the inequalities faced by the elderly are therefore more to do with labelling than aging
New Technology and the Fight Against Ageism
Not all people grow old gracefully, some fight it with the use of new technology and cosmetic surgery
Powell and Biggs (2000) wrote that this allows some to continually re-create themselves
observe that new technology and cosmetic surgery allow some older people to continually re-invent themselves
May mean that age discrimination against the elderly is just based on the mask
Impossible to tell as those who can afford to re-create themselves may suffer less ageism due to other factors such as wealth
Globalisation
Recognise the importance of globalisation
Britain becomes more cultural, ageism changes
Some cultures are a gerontocracy where, instead of the elderly feeling marginalised and useless their age bring them high status
In countries like Kenya where elderly is still part of the family, their experience may be very different to that of a British person
This may mean that the cause of age inequality rests largely on culture
High status children have in UK and its child-centred families can be counted with reference to cultures where a child has a low status or is expected to take adult roles such as working
Ideas show that it is not necessarily chronological age that causes some to suffer inequality but norms and values within that society such as retirement age
Victor (2001) suggests the global capitalism is still the major determinant of age experience and inequality
He argues that decreasing labour-market stability and rapidly changing employment patterns have produced age groups which are still shaped and differentiated along social class lines
Age is a Complicated Stratum for Explaining inequality
While some believe that age can result in inequality that is an undeserved social construction based on labelling, others believe that it is directly related to what someone has offer to society
What is clear is the idea of homogeneous age groups all given the same high or low status ignores differences related to ethnicity, social class and gender