Age of Marriage
In 1970 in England and Wales on average woman married at the age of 22.0
Men at 24.1
According to ONS in 2012 the average age at which men getting married is 30.8 and woman is 28.9 years
Age has increased because of;
- More couples cohabitating
- Changing social norms and attitudes meaning there is less social pressure
- Extension of education, particularly for woman
- Cost of weddings so a survey by You and Your Weddings magazine the average cost of wedding in 2013 was just under £22’000
Age of Childbearing
Increasing proportion of woman in each generation born since the 1920a have remained childless until the age of 30
Result of this is that age at which woman start bearing children has been increasing
More recent data shows that fertility levels are rising fastest among older woman
Since 2011, when the TFR was at a record low, fertility levels are rising for woman in all age groups so largest percentage increase in fertility rates as woman aged 40 followed by 35-39
Increased of 66% and 53% respectively
Continues the trend of rising fertility among woman aged 35 and recorded during the 1980s and 1990s
Number of live births to mothers aged 40 + has more than quadrupled over the last 3 decades from 6’519 in 1982 to 29’994 in 2012
Changing pattern of fertility has been linked by some sociologists to the cultural changes associated with individualisation
Suggest that woman have more freedom of choice in late modernity and many are exercising so choosing to remain childless or delay having children
Maire Ni Bhrolchain and Eva Beaujouan (2012)
Suggested a straighter forward explanation based on rising levels of education
More woman is staying longer in education and are not ready to start having children
Seek to establish themselves in careers once completed education
Explains why there is a noticeable class difference in age of childbearing with professional’s middle-class woman so starting a family much later than working class woman
Aging Population
In UK the common with other western societies has aging population
Elderly people beginning to outnumber younger people
Average age of the population is increasing
From 1988 to 2010 the median age of the UK population increased from 35.4 years to 39.7 years
This is caused by 2 factors:
- Lower birth rates – fewer people are being born in younger generations reducing the size of the youthful population
- Increased life expectancy – in 1951, life expectancy at birth in UK was 66.1 years for men and 70.9 for woman
Predicted that it will reach 42.2 by 2023
Aging population is also an increase in the proportion of the population who are elderly so a decline in proportion of young people
Aging population can be seen most clearly when the age structure of the population is represented in population pyramids
In 1911 the age structure actually looked like a pyramid as there were generally fewer people in each age group rising up in age
Reflected there was a high birth rates, so these were large numbers of infants at the bottom so death rates at all ages were high
In 2011 pyramid there is a much less tapering until the population is over 65 so reflecting that infant mortality and death rates among younger groups are low
People start dying off in large numbers once they reach pensionable age
Female side, of the graph, also tapers off more slowly than the male side so reflecting that woman live longer than men so more elderly females in the population
2011 pyramid also has rather ragged edges which reflects fluctuations in number of births such as fewer 10-year olds than 20-year-old reflecting the birth rate slumped around 2001 which is higher than 1991
Particularly large number of people in the 40-50 year
So called ‘baby boomer’ who will enter the retired population so next 20-30 years old, calling further aging of population
Death and morality rates were lowest in 2009
Decline in death rates in early 20th century was better housing and rise in living expectancy continued after the 2nd world war due to introduction of the NHS in 1948 so increased the use of drugs such as antibodies as well as improving both maternity case ad surgery
Period 1983-2013 saw a 13% fall in the UK death rate
Only 576’000 deaths occurred in Britain
Problems of an Aging Population
Increasing Age Dependency Ratio
Def. ratio of dependents so people younger than is or older than 64 to the working age population these aged 15-64
Proportion of dependents per 100 of the working age population has increased from 51% to 54% between 1994-2013
Increased Public Spending
Not all elderly people are a financial drain on the working population, but older people are more likely to require health service and social services
Taxes paid by working population also pay for variety of financial benefits for elderly such as state pensions
Loneliness and Isolation for Older People
In 2014 the governments announced it would be commissioning research into the extent of loneliness among older people
Research for the GO programme by Christina Victor and her colleagues (2003) found that the % of older people reporting they were lonely – 7%
Majority of older people demonstrated high levels of contacted with family, friends and neighbours and don’t experience loneliness
Found that the extent of loneliness among older people have been remarkably stable in the post-war period
The number of isolated older people is likely to be increasingly as more people live alone
Growing number of older people are likely to be divorced or single
Demands on Family Members
Older people who cared for by family members may make considerable demands in terms of informal care
Grundy and Henrietta (2006) have identified the emergence of a ‘sandwich generation’
These are older middle-aged people, especially women who have taken on the responsibility for adult children who might be living at home so argued to be feminist perspective
Sarah Harper (2013) suggests that to some extent the problems of an aging society are a myth
She points out that growing pressures on the health service are more to do with rising expectations
She also suggests that a high age dependency ratio is only a problem due to forcing older people could go on contributing economically rather than becoming part of dependent population
Positive Aspects of an Aging Population
Older Workers
Most older people remain healthy until towards the end of Meir lives and increasingly people are working beyond official retirement age
A report for the WRVS, gold age pensioners (2011), found that in 2012, over 65s, through taxes spending power, provision of social care and value of volunteering so net contributions of £40 billion to the UK economy
The Voluntary Sector
Retired people have time to contribute unpaid work such as volunteering for charities or organising social community events
WRVS study (2011) suggested that ‘more than any other group in society, older people are the social glue of the most communicates
Their research showed that every year, each older volunteer spends a more than 55 hours in formal volunteering role
Worth £10 billion to the UK economy
Older People as Consumers
A study by David Kingsman (2012) found hat in recent years, the spending power of older people has increased while that younger generations has increased
Found that means gross pensioner incomes grew by estimated 50% in real terms between 1994 and 1995 and 2010 and 2011 such as spending on overseas travel and theatre and cinema tickets have increased in 50+ and declined under 30
Older people also spend more on eating out than younger people and while cars and petrol sales have fallen in all age groups so affected 65 – 74-year olds
In view of this some commentators have referred to the importance of the ‘grey pound’ in helping to sustain the UK economy
Grandparents
Make a huge contribution to family life
Most two-parents’ families, both parents are now in employment and 1 in 3 families depend of grandparents for childcare, so figure rises to half in lone-parent families
Marsha Jones (2011) suggests that grandparents can be seen as part of the ‘reserve army of labour’
Marxists use the them to describe a group of workers who replaced paid workers when there is a shortage of labour helping to keep down the cost wages
Grandparents also make a large financial contribution to families, including helping grandchildren to get on the property ladder
Beanpole Families
Julia Branmen (2003) we are witnessing the emergence of beanpole families
These are extended families of 3, 4, 5 generations
Unlike traditional extended families, members may not necessary all live in the same households but live close together
Low birth rates mean only one or two children maybe born in each generation, so children have few brothers and sisters or cousins in their own generation so a sandwich generation so woman giving financial and practical help
Intragenerational these are weak, but individuals tend to have more intragenerational relationships such as grandparents
According to Brannen such as relationship can offer valuable support to families going through divorce of lone parents
Family Diversity
Existence of different forms of families such as nuclear, lone and reconstructed so referred to as structural diversity as each of these family’s types has a different structure
Most functionalist and new right sociologists have assumed that family diversity is not the norm such as Parsons saw the nuclear family as perfectly suited to modern industrial societies
Wilmott and Young saw the nuclear sociologist admins that family diversity is the norm today
Some sociologist argue that we have to acknowledge that the UK is no longer dominated by one family type
Argue we should be celebrating ‘family diversity’ as it now exists a greater choice and variety than ever before in terms of family life styles
Social Class and Family Diversity
Class diversity refers to the differences between middle class and working-class families In terms of the relationship between husband and wife so the way in which children are socialised and disciplined
Postmodernists sociologist, social class no longer shapes family life and personal relationships
Individuals now have much greater freedom of choice about how they organise their personal lives
Other sociologists argue that social class continues to influence a whole range of aspects of life, including families
Rosemary Crompton (2005) the family still plays a part in ensuring the process of what Marxists refer to as class reproduction
This is the idea that most children will follow their parent into similar class position in society so most working-class children into working class position and middle class will go to middle class positions
Families play a considerable part in equipping their children for future role in society so economic reasons
Wealthier parents can pass on money, family business or financial assets
May also invest in their children’s education such as paying for private education
Cultural differences as middle-class parents are often possessing what Pierra Bourdieu (1973) call ‘cultural capital’ so forms of cultural knowledge that can help their children to do well in education
Children from families living in poverty are likely to be disadvantage
Simply due to lack of resources such as insignificant income to ensure decent standard of housing, diet and access to leisure activates
According to Ilan Katz and colleagues (2007) the stress of living in poverty to bring children up is effectively
Equally good evidence to show that most parents swing in poverty are resilient and possess strong coping skills
Differences in Parenting – Gillies (2005)
Val Gillies carried out a survey of 1’112 parents together with more in-depth interview of 25 mothers and 11 fathers
Found significant class differences in parenting such as showing class is still significant in family life
Middle class parents used a range of resources to support their children so mainly developing in social skills and success in education
Working class parents tended to help their children develop strategies to cope with poverty so developing emotional strength to deal with the injustice and hardship
Middle class parents emphasised their children individuality and their right to be respected often seeing their own children and outstanding
Working class parents did not with their children to be seen as special and were often more concerned
Middle class parents felt confident in dealing with teachers and could draw and range of expensive specialist
Working class parents were reluctant to have their children clinically diagnosed with a problem
Working class are child-centred
Material deprivation or poverty limits
Evidence that extended kinship this is important its upper class
Economic and political elite so they have social closure
Ethnicity and Family Diversity
Peoples family life is not determined by their ethnicity and there is a significant diversity in ethnic groups
Evidence that the cultural values associated with different ethnic minorities in UK influence people
Global migration as in the mid 1950s/1960s Britain experienced a net gain in population
Since 1980s most immigrants in the UK are white and from African immigration
In 2011 found 13% of eastern and western population were born outside the UK
37% of Londoners were born in a foreign family
Polish is the main spoken language in eastern and western culture
South Asian Families
The term ‘south Asian’ is normally applied to people originating from India, Pakistan and Bangladesh
Comprises a diverse set of ethnic groups with most Indian being Hindu or Sikh so overwhelming majority of Pakistani and Bangladeshis identifying themselves as Muslims in 2011
Language differences are important with Urdu, Punjabi being spoke in many Britain-Pakistani homes
Gujarati and Hindu in Britain Indian homes
According to Roger Ballard (1982-1990) when south Asian migrants first settled in UK in large numbers from 1950s onwards so tended to bring tended to bring traditions of family life from country of origin
Preference for large multigenerational households based around a man and his sons and grandsons together
Traditional gender roles with men being the main wage earners and woman focusing on work in domestic sphere
Strong sense of obligation towards other family members so override personal needs of individuals
Sense of family honour, where the behaviour of individuals reflects on the family did whole
Marriages to be arranged or at least approved by parents
Evidence of change among south Asian families such as younger generations expect more choice in their marriage partner as south Asian households are now based around nuclear rather than extended families
Evidence that levels of divorce and lone parenthood are starting to increase in Asian communities
Research by Richard Berthaid (2001) suggest south Asian remain in a way more traditional than white people
Couples being more likely to marry earlier and less likely to cohabit divorce or live alone
According to Lucinda Platt (2009), family size also remains larger among south Asian as only 16% of white households contain 4 or more people, 43% of Pakistani households and 49% of Bangladeshi households
African-Caribbean Families
Brought very different traditions of family life when they migrate to Britain from 1950s onwards
Some Caribbean islands such as Jamaica, the nuclear family is the norm but there is a strong tradition of mother centred families so often lone parent families are headed by woman but often entail mothers bringing up children with distance
Cohabitation has become more acceptable in the British white population in recent decades
Common law families that involves couples cohabitating and bringing up children who may or may not be their own
Reflected in African-Caribbean families and households in UK such as Richard and Sharon Beishon (1997) found much lower rates of formal marriage and higher rates of divorce so lone parent families have more common
39% of British born African Caribbean adults under the age of 60 are more formal marriage
Rates of employment are low among Pakistani and Asian mothers than whites
Higher among African Caribbean mothers reflecting a tradition of female independence in the black community
Lone parenthood is common among British African, Caribbean families so this can be misleading
Mary Chaberlain (1999) found that extended family members mainly brothers and sisters often provide support
Tracey Reynolds (2002) noted the existence of visiting relationship where lone mothers would have a male partner who visited frequently
Berthood (2003) suggests attitudes of young woman are ‘modern individualisation’
Chamberlain and Goulborne (1999) mother in Leeds noted that single mothers are supported by extended kin
Patterns of Ethnicity
Noticeable difference between ethnic groups and there is also diversity within them
Focused on the 2 largest groups of ethnic minorities but many other ethnic groups in the UK such as poles, Lithuanians, Slovaks and Portuguese who migrate in last 20 years
Richard Berthood (2001) suggest that families in UK can be placed on a scale ranging from old fashioned values to modern individualisation
Argues that the main ethnic groups in UK are African Caribbean communities
Where south Asian communities tend to maintain more traditional family values
Robin Mann (2009) criticises their saying aspects of Britain African Caribbean family life reflects patterns that are traditional in many parents, so they are mixed dual families, so research done by Platt indicates they are more likely to infer many with ethnic groups
Ali (2002) notes marriages in result in inter-ethnic families and mixed-race children
Sexuality and Family Diversity
Great acceptance of the same sex families
Gidden (1992) sees this as a transformation of intimacy where individuals have much more freedom in what they engage in
Jeffrey Weeks, Catherine Donovan and Brain Heaphy (1999) observe gay and lesbian people describe their households as chosen families so they are able to choose to include in their families
Feminist Cheshire Calhorn (1997) argues that gay men and lesbian have traditionally been treated as family outlaws
Argues modern life has come to be characterised by greater choice as lifestyle if accepted
Suggests lesbian marriages and mothering avoids the exploitative relationship typical heterosexual marriage
Developing new forms of chosen and egalitarian domestic relationship
The importance should not be exaggerated
In 2012, there was 2’893’000 opposite sex couples in the UK and 69’000 same sex couples so gay and lesbian partnership contribute to family diversity
Greater social acceptance the British social attitudes survey in 2012 found 28% still thought that sexual relation between same sex was wrong
Weeks, Heaphy and Donovan (2001) observed that gay and lesbian people see their households and friendship as their chosen families
Calhorn (1997) describes gay families as a family outlaws due to gay families differ
Conservatives see them as threaten the sanctity of family life so traditionally dominated by heterosexual norms