The Marxist’s View of Digital Forms of Communication
Marxist’s ideas about and social media are generally critical of digital form of communication so in the way in which these are being used by global capitalist corporations
Constitute a critical digital sociology
Fuchs generally takes a conflict view of the role of digital communication in reproducing and legitimating inequality in capitalist society
Marxist’s theories of the media and the newer digitalised forms of communication therefore generally argued that all forms of communication are ideological in that they function on behalf of the capitalists ruling class to reproduce and justify class inequality
They believe that the role of digital social media is to bring about a state of false class consciousness so that citizens do not criticise or challenge the unequal and unjust organisation of capitalist’s society
Marxist’s argue that the popularity of social media such as Facebook functions to reinforce false class consciousness because digital social networks mainly focus on non-critical issues such as identity, entertainment and consumption
Consequently, are rarely important vehicles of protest and social change
Those who own or control these new forms of communication and social networks aim to shape and manipulate how people think about the world they live in so that they only get a narrow range of approved views and knowledge
This results in alternative and critical points of view are rarely heard or are dismissed altogether are extremists
Seabrook sees the globalisation linked to digital communication as a type of cultural imperialism as it is dominated by western cultural industries which use digital communication to impose cultural values on the rest of the world
He argues that integration onto a single economy and culture is a declaration of cultural war upon other cultures
It implies traditional cultures have little or no value
Seabrook argue that cultural imperialism attempts to replace diversity with homogenisation, and this often results in painful social and religious disruption as local cultures attempt to resist
Some observers suggest that the recent growth in Islamism fundamentalism may be a reaction to these processes
They believe that social media platforms can reach out to many more people than conventional media in order to shape peoples ideas
- Consequently digital social media is a potentially powerful way for the ruling class to bring about cultural hegemony
- Legitmating the inequalities brought about by capitalism, by encouraging the powerless and the poor to uncritically accept capitalism and by discouraging the questioning the inequalities in income and wealth so bringing about a state of flase class consciousness which allows politicans who represent the wealthy and privileged to rule by consent
- Marxist’s argue that the popularity of social media such as facebook, functions which reinforce flase class consciousness as digital social networks mainly focus on non-critical issues like ideneity, entertainment and consumption and consequently are rarely important vehicles of portest and social change
- Those who own or control these new forms of communication and social networks aim to shape and manipulate how people think about the world they live in so thy only get a narrow range of approved views and knowledge with the result that alternative and critical points of view are rarely heard or are dismissed as too extremists
- Another recent negative by product of social networks, which may also contribute to flase class consciousness is the dissemination of fake news on social media platforms
They have argued that those who participate in the new digital culture are not created equal.
- Corporations, governemnets – indidivuals within corporate media so exert greater power than aggregates of consumers or those with genuine political and economic grievances
- Digital technologies and networks mainly strengthened the power of existsing elites and contribute to the muting of those who are politically and economically repressed so who have genuine grievnaces with the way capitalism is orgainsed
- The ownership of mny of the social media platforms that control the flow of digital data is concentrated in a handful of companies
- They also argue that the intenet nd other digital forms of communcaftion are another method of surveillance used by the wealthy to control and regulate people
- – Edward Snowden revelaed that the british governemnts is illegally intercepting smart phone and intenet communications and harvesting email and text messages from private citizens supposedly to prevent terrositss attacks
- Illegal activity has led some critics of digital media to suggest that individual freedom, privacy and liberty are under attack and that the human rights of UK citizens are being infringed
- There is also a concern that commercial digital companies are amassing economic information on their customers with regard to their spending habits
- Technologies such as cookies can monitor and process the data generated by interactive media usuage so they can segment and target potential future audiences which enhances profits
- Social networks may act like imperial powers, colonising the minds of millions of people worldwide.
It has been argued that they create a cult of homogeneity which is diminishing local culture
- Marxist’s argue that the powerful control digital communication and social media, which undermines the concept of a participatory digital culture
They argue that friendship and connectness have become commodified
Social media activity is not a voluntary as people believe to be
Algorithms shepherd people towards making choices that benefit capitalist agencies such as advertisers
Social media content amy therefore simply reflect capitalist ideology
There was little attempt by digital companies and social media platforms to protect the poor and powerless online
Such as in 2017 the BBC investigation found tha paedophiles were using secret groups on Facebook to post and swap sexually suggestive images of children
The state has put very little legislation into place to regulate how digital communication companies and socialmedia platforms use personal infomration
The Contribution of Power being Concentrated in the hands of a few – Cornford and Robins (1999)
Cornford and Robins argue that digital communication is presented as a new form of democratic, open communication which can lead to greater equality in the creation and spread of new ideas and communication.
In reality, however, they are doubtful of these claims and argue that the people who own and control the digital media are capitalists who not only want to make profit but also to ideologically control the masses.
In the past, the ruling class owned the means of production, that is the factories and machinery which led to the production of goods to be sold for a profit.
Today, power and money come from a variety of different sources, the media being one of these.
The media includes the news and entertainment which are powerful in shaping the ideas of the population.
In many ways this reflects the changes recently seen in the general non-digital media where the media is owned by a smaller and smaller number of media moguls who influence the content and organisation of their media with their predominantly conservative values (Bagdikian, 2014)
Marxist’s point out 6 factors which they claim to support their case:
- Digital forms of communication are a continuation of older forms of media and subject to the same economic and social influences
Conford and Robins (1999) argue that are new media are not new
Older forms of technology such as telephone, landlines are still integral to the use of new digital communication such as broadband connections to the internet
Argued that the only thing that is new about digital media is speed as information, news and entertainment can be accessed in real time
Suggest that what the new technologies permit is the refinement, extension and embellishment of traditional media
- Jenkins argues that new forms of digital media have developed as a result of investment by the big media corporations and consequently ownership of digital communications
Argues the owning different types of media made it more desirable for companies to develop content over a variety of media platforms and delivery systems
Jenkins notes digitalisation set the conditions for convergence; corporate conglomerates created its imperative
Examination of the internet suggest that it is a dominated by a small number of media corporations such as Microsoft has developed most of the software required for accessing the net
Most of the internet commercially viable content is therefore controlled and commissioned by a handful of media conglomerates
- Digital forms of communication are becoming increasingly commercialised
In last 10 years there has been a major shift in internet activities from educational use to commercial use
Advertising has become a central feature of most social networking sites
Technologies such as cookies can monitor and process the data generated by interactive media usage as they can segment and target potential audiences which enhances profits
- Marxist’s such as Fuchs points out that those who participate in the new digital culture are not created equal
Corporations, governments and individuals within corporate media they exert greater power than aggregates of consumers or those with genuine political and economic grievances
Suggests that digital technologies and networks mainly strengthen power of existing elites and contribute to the muting of those who are politically and economically repressed they have genuine grievances with the way capitalism of organised
- Castells has highlighted the global criminal economy which overlaps with the legitimate global economy
It is worth at least £1 trillion a year and has been made possible by digital forms of communication
- Marxist’s critical thinkers such as McChesney highlight the similarity of digital content and social networking
Facebook, Google and Twitter operate in hundreds of countries across the world
McVhesney claims companies are like imperial power colonising the minds of millions of people across the world so they behave and think in the same way
Argues that this cult of homogeneity which speaks to everyone in general and no one in particular, crowds out local cultural products
He claims that it is also reduced people’s opportunity to speak out has silenced or muted less powerful groups so that they are less likely to challenge issues such as inequality or speak out against injustice
Marxist’s account for digital communication has been challenged:
- Assumes a unified conspiracy on the part of the providers of dgital forms of communication
However, the owners of digital forms of communication are not united as the companies are involved in competition with one another for a bigger share of the market and profit
- Marxist’s overemphasise social class at the expense of other inequalities that may also result in muted voices such as those relating to ethnicity, gender and sexuality
- Neo-Marxist’s argue that ideas can exists independently of capitalism as these are not always the ideas of the ruling class and consequaltny do not always have to be ideological
Some Marxist’s observers of digital communication such as Castells have argued that new media technologies and networks can revitalise democracy
Argued that the internet enables such as the poor, the politically repressed, woman, ethnic minorities, disabled people and the LGBT community and encouraging greater community involvement in political action
Gives a voice to those who would otherwise go unheard
Gives oppressed people in ability to come together and facilitate social change
As we have seen there has been an increasing number of ways to access the media through digital devices = media convergence.
For the owners of media companies this creates greater opportunities for cross fertilisation of ideas and marketing strategies, meaning that they can sell their media in a number of different formats, creating vast opportunities to make profit.
Marxists would argue that this also means that the media has an even greater platform for shaping people’s ideas, encouraging people to accept capitalism and not question the inequalities that exist.
The approach argues that new forms of digital communication reinforce and maintain inequalities in society and ideologically control people in new and subtle ways.
De-regulation of the media and digital communication
One part of the critical argument has been the apparent lack of regulation in relation to digital communication.
The fact that digital communication is mediated by private companies rather than the state means that there are few laws governing its moral responsibilities.
There have been growing concerns about the lack of social control over what occurs as a result of digital communication, either in virtual reality or in people’s offline lives
Marxists would also argue that the internet and digital forms of communication are yet another method of surveillance, a form of subtle observation as a way to control and regulate people, in the interests of the wealthy.
It is possible to argue that as there is little economic incentive for protecting vulnerable groups such as children and women online, little is done to prevent their exploitation.
Critics of capitalism and digital communication also argue that adults may be spending excessive amounts of time online, to the extent that the balance between sleep and screen based activities has now tipped.
The typical adult spends eight hours and 41 minutes each day communicating or consuming media, including books and newspapers, and just eight hours and 21 minutes asleep (Garside, 2014).
Marxists would suggest that the internet and digital communication is a way of entertaining people which presents no real threat to the existing capitalist society
Digital communication provides a new form of surveillance
There have been recent concerns over the monitoring of personal digital communication between individuals by the state
Alternatively, private companies gather information on people’s use of social media as well as their consumer habits and their ‘breadcrumbs’, which means their movements around the internet, often without the knowledge or consent of the person who is being monitored.
This has caused some to suggest that digital communication threatens individual liberty and freedom.
Cornford and Robins argue that digital communication is simply a way of capitalism controlling people more subtly through their use of various social media under the guise of protecting people from extremism or criminal acts.
This represents a huge challenge to people’s individual privacy, and has caused considerable controversy.
These forms of surveillance are little understood by the consumer.
Formal social control through the law has not yet fully caught up with the changes and is often ill equipped to deal with such problems.
The prevailing lack of clarity over how personal information is being used is considered highly problematic by many critical sociologists and others
Evaluation of Marxist ideas about globalisation and digital forms of communication
Despite the fact that Marxist ideas were developed over a hundred year ago, it is clear that they still offer an interesting way of looking at the role of digital forms of communication in a global context.
Marxists argue that globalisation has led to the spread of capitalist ideology and as a result, new opportunities to make profit.
Marxists are pessimistic about the role of digital communication, arguing that it simply offers a new and more sophisticated way for the ruling class to ideologically control and watch the working-class masses.
According to Marxists the owners of the media and new media companies alike use their positions to manipulate people into accepting society as it is.
It assumes a unified conspiracy on behvalf of the providers of digital forms of communication.
However, the capitalist owners of digital forms of communication are not united as their companies are involved in competition with one another for a bigger share of the market and therefore profit
Marxist’s tend to oer0empahssis social class at the expense of other inequalities that may also result in muted voices such as ethnicity, gender and sexuality
Feminism
Feminists theory has traditionally focused on how societies tend to be organised in patriarchal ways in favour to them
They are critical of digital forms of communications which they see as patriarchal apparartus which mianly engage in the symbolic annihilation of woman so they tend to show woman in a narrow and limited range of social roles and suggest that their achievements are less important
- Popularity of pornography websites on the intenet ad woman were in the minority of the top 100 UK based people followed o tiwtter in 2017
Digital technology has produced new online ways in which both woman and children can be exploitated
- Insances of online grooming of children, the exchange of pornographic images of children, revenge porn and sexting have increased dramatically in recent years
- Evidence that the dark net – an encrypted part of the intenet used by criminals to buy and sell illegal goods and services – is also used by criminals gangs to exploit woman and children by making available extreme forms of pornography not available on conventional sites and by trafficking and selling woman and children as sex slaves
Some woman have noted ways in which digital technology can be utilised for the good of woman
Feminist views have emerged partly due to recent criticism of the digital to further patriarchal or dominant (hegemonic) discourses
Males dominate positions of power in most societies and woman in contrast generally occupy subordinate positions
Feminist views on digital communication include theoretical interpretations as well as practical and socio-political movement.
Statistics reveal the following facts about gender and digital communication:
- Women use social media slightly more than men, however, Pinterest and Instagram are overwhelmingly used by females – over 70 per cent are women.
- Point out control of the content fo new digital forms of communication is in the hands of transitional corporations mainly owned by men even though woman use social media platforms more than men
- Only 13 per cent of the contributions to Wikipedia are by women (New York Times, 2011)
- The latest list of Britain’s top 100 influential Twitter users in 2013 contained just 17 women (Peer Index and The Independent).
- This may reflect patterns in employment where women still represent under a fifth of IT managers, 21 per cent of computer analysts, and 14 per cent of software professionals (Cooper, 2013).
- Linkedin the social network site for creating stronger and further reaching work based contacts has considerably more male users than women
Some of the research into gender and the digital world focuses on the exclusion of women from the history of technology and the use of technology to develop feminist ideas.
Feminists challenge the male-dominated nature of digital media, emphasising the role of women, feminists, and cyber-feminists, in developing digital communication.
They seek to challenge and overturn ideas such as the suggestion that men are the innovators of the internet and digital communication.
Feminists are usually critical of both old media and digital forms of communication which they see as patriarchal agencies which mainly engages in the symbolic annihilation of woman as they tend to show woman in a narrow and limited
With a range of social roles and to suggest that their achievements are less important than looks and bodies
Popularity of pornography websites on the internet
Feminists also points out that control of the content of new digital forms of communication is in the hands of transnational corporations mainly owned by men
Feminists were responsible for the development of muted group theory which suggests groups with little power or status are muted or silences by more powerful groups
Feminists argued that woman were often unable to voice there concerns about patriarchy as a male dominated media suppressed or muted them
Kramarae extended this argument to the intenet which is constructed and mainly controlled by men despite the fact that woman use it as much as men do
Argues that the companies controlling the digital technology that underpins cybercommunication the way the intenet is organised as its software and the metaphors used to describe the intenet such as the super-information highway are masculine and that this has the effect of muting the voice of woman
However, some feminists are positive aboit the power of digital forms of communication to change womans social position in society for the better
Haraway felt strongly that women should be included in all forms of knowledge relating to technologically based information, which appeared to be produced mainly by men.
Argues that the anonymity granted by many forms of digital communication allows people to transcend an oppressed identity such as being female and to take on an alternative identity which avoids the negative judgements and stereotypes often applied to feminine identity
Internet and chat rooms IDs and blog names can be asexual
They need to participate in technological advances so men do no monopolise digital information and technology
She argues that woman cannot be essentialised so there isno such thing as a universal female identity or experience
She also says that female identity in the globalised world is socially constructed and politicised such as it assumes that females are not interested in technology which allowes males to dominate
She argued that feminists must not be excluded from the technological advances that were taking place and instead, be part of them and inform them.
She suggests that cyborgs, which are part-machine, part-human entities, might allow people to transcend or rise above gender-bound ideas of what it means to be a person.
In other words, Haraway suggests that technological advances offer the possibility for women to create new forms of identity not bound by traditional ideas or dominant patriarchal discourses about gender.
Haraway uses the cyborg metaphor to explain how problems with feminism and capitalism might be overcome through greater understanding of identity through cyborg theory.
A cyborg is a hybridised half machine and part human entity
She suggests that feminists need to move away from the limittations of traditional gender identity and patriarchy and adopt a cyborg identity which mix male and female attributes so none are dominate
Haraway is interesting therefore as she was among the first feminists to consider technology to be a way for women to become more empowered, offering possibilities beyond those which traditional social life can offer.
Today, there are a number of ways in which feminists are exploring the links between feminist theory and the digital global world.
For example, Nakamura (2011) notes that women from a range of ethnic minorities are gaining an increasing presence in digital communication and this enables their particular interests.
For example, there are support networks for women who might have been unable to access support previously.
These networks offer practical and emotional support for women who are experiencing discrimination for example, The Everyday Sexism Project founded by Laura Bates.
Haraway argues that the anonymity granted by many forms of digital communication allows people to transcend an oppressed identity such as being a female and take on an alternative identity to avoid negative judgements and stereotypes
Internet and chat room IDs and blog names can be asexual
The online visual community second life, in which users create a utopian identity
Users construct an avatar an image that represents them from a selection of generic choices including buff males bodies, voluptuous females forms and asexual humanoid alternatives such as cyborgs
Sociological research on second life users suggests they do not feel limited by their real gender identities when choosing an avatar identity
Such as some woman reported that they had deliberately chosen to adopt a male body in order to experience a masculine identity while others preferred to cyborg identity due to interaction with others excluded sexual partners
Cochrane argues that digital technology is encouraging woman to build an empowering, popular and reactive feminist movement online
So womans voices are no longer muted
She observes that woman are using digital forms of communication to protest about pornography such as page 3 in the sun
Also that it has resulted in contemporary young woman adopting an inter-sectional form of feminism in which they are aware of how multiple oppressions through class inequality, poverty, age, race, gender etc… so intersect to bring about misogyny and patriarchal institutions
Cochrane identity is a fourth wave of feminism which is powered by digital technology which is encouraging woman to build an empowering, popular and reactive feminist movement online
Woman’s voices are no longer muted
Green and Singleton argue that digital technology and particularly the internet is a feminine technology that has the potential to destabilise patriarchy as it allows woman to explore, subvert and create new identities and resist sexist representations
Online empowerment by Laura Bates’s everyday sexism project which in 2015 had 108’000 followers on twitter and Facebook
This is a consciousness-raising initiative which encourages woman to send in their everyday experiences of street harassment, sexual harassment mainly on public transport, workplace discrimination and body shaming
She observes that woman is using digital forms of communication to protest about pornography, page 3 of the sun, violence against woman, the sexualisation of childhood etc…
She argues that digital technology has resulted in contemporary young woman adopting an intersectional form of feminism in which they are aware how multiple oppressions:
- Class inequality
- Poverty
- Race
- Age
- Sexuality
- Gender
- Ability
- Violence
Globalisation and the exploitation of women
Globalisation has had many effects, including new opportunities for criminals to exploit already vulnerable groups.
As a result, women and children who were already at increased risk of exploitation are now at further risk of, becoming commodities to be bought, sold and consumed.
The criminals involved include, for example, tourists, organised crime rings, traffickers, pimps, and those seeking sexual entertainment.
Women and children throughout history have been in a vulnerable position due to the fact that those who hold the power in terms of government and law-making have not made passing legislation to protect women and children a priority. Most feminists would argue that this is because men largely control governments and legal systems worldwide.
Protecting women and children from exploitation has not only not been prioritised, but is exceedingly difficult as those who operate human trafficking networks do so as covertly as possible.
The internet has made it easier for such activities to be organised in an unregulated digital world.
The global sexual exploitation of women and children that is accompanying globalisation is a human rights disaster.
As national boundaries have become less significant, the illegal movement of people has become much easier to coordinate and as a result, people trafficking has risen.
Arlaccki (1997), who led the United Nations efforts to fight organised crime, states that exploitation has been one of the most undesirable consequences of globalisation.
Regrettably, he stated that this is not currently considered a priority by any country
How is exploitation of women and children furthered through new forms of digital communication?
There are increasing concerns about the exploitation of children through various forms of digital communication.
For example, the Child Exploitation and Online Protection Centre (CEOP) play a leading role in protecting children, and in the year 2012–13 reported that:
- 790 children were subject to safeguarding or protection as a result of CEOP activity.
- There were 18,887 reports relating to child sexual exploitation.
- 2,866 intelligence reports were sent to UK and overseas law enforcement agencies relating to individuals suspected of being involved in child sexual abuse.
- 192 people suspected of online child exploitation were arrested.
Some of the many negative impacts of exploitation of women include:
- Physical, sexual, emotional abuse with both short and long term effects and implications.
- The further commodification of women (women becoming something to be bought and sold).
- The ability to share the eroticising of men’s violence towards women.
- Objectification – women become increasingly regarded as objects without feelings, dignity or rights due to increased access to images depicting them in this way being easily accessed on the internet.
- Sexualised violent imagery becomes seen as less serious as it is prevalent.
- Viewing violence against women, such as exposing pictures of their ex partners naked, provides a new form of social control over women, which reflects the continuation of patriarchy which goes largely unchallenged.
Few men are ever detected, found responsible or prosecuted.
The lack of regulation in the digital world makes it even less likely for perpetrators to be found. Feminists acknowledge that men are also included in this exploitation, however they point out that that online forms of abuse reflect the rate and societal patterns already existing in society where overwhelmingly it is women who experience violence at the hands of men.
Therefore it appears that new forms of digital communication in fact not only allow for the reproduction of patriarchy but also offer new ways in which women, children and other vulnerable marginalised groups can be exploited.
At present, despite attempts to punish these behaviours, much exploitation goes undetected and un-policed.
This presents a real challenge to policy makers and law enforcement both locally and globally. Apart from slavery, feminists also point out the ways in which digital forms of communication can offer new ways in which patriarchal ideology can exert further control over women.
The types of sexual exploitation on the internet include: bride trafficking, sex tourism (where people visit parts of the world where sex can be bought with little risk of punishment) exchange of information on where to buy prostitutes and live sex shows through videoconferencing (Hughes 1999).
Because there is little regulation of the internet, the traffickers and promoters of sexual exploitation have rapidly utilised the internet for their purposes.
Establishing Britain as a world leader in the fight against modern slavery, The Centre for Social Justice (2013)
This study reflects the result of research carried out by a range of academics on the nature and extent of slavery in the UK.
The study takes evidence from over 180 individuals and organisations across all sectors involved.
They conclude that slaves include UK nationals and those from abroad – who are exploited in the sex industry, through forced labour, domestic servitude in the home, and forced criminal activity.
This exploitation takes place in factories, fields, construction sites, brothels and houses.
Their research shows that a large proportion of cases are never recognised or reported, and do not appear in any statistics or measures of the size of the problem.
This is not just a problem for women: the study reveals that in 2011, of the 2077 potential victims of modern slavery identified by the UK Human Trafficking Centre, 40 per cent of the individuals were male.
This problem can no longer be viewed only as a manifestation of violence against women, and must be recognised as a significant issue for vulnerable men as well.
Despite this, the majority of sexual exploitation continues to affect women; in 2011, 94 per cent of those identified as trafficked into sexual exploitation were women.
Practical responses by feminists
There have been practical responses to the perceived and real lack of women in digital communication.
For example, through the work of FemTechNet, a network of scholars, artists, and students who work on technology, science and feminism in a variety of fields.
Feminist academics write blogs about the structures in place that have kept women from engaging in digital humanities.
The fourth wave of feminism
Interestingly, there has been a revitalisation of feminist discourse through what is known as the fourth wave of feminism, which arguably emerged between 2000–2010, is defined by the importance placed on technology as a method for communicating and sharing ideas and plans. This has had a significant effect on many women who might previously have been unheard. Women in many parts of the world are not allowed to be educated or to express their views, making their thoughts part of a muted group.
New forms of digital global communication are being used as tools that are allowing women to build a strong, popular, reactive movement online.
This is evidenced at all ages, for example, The Girl Guides organisation introduced a campaigning and activism badge this year and a survey of Mumsnet users found 59 per cent consider themselves feminists, double those who do not (Cochrane, 2013).
Intersect to bring about misogyny and patraiarchal institutions
Green and Singleton emphasis the central use of the smartphone and particularly texting in the creation and maintance of feminism identities, friendship networks and communities across local and global spaces
Everidemce suggests that woman who use digital forms of communication may still be subject to sexism, abuse and threats such as woman who use new media like the internet may experience the sorts of everyday sexism experienced in older forms of media
Womans right campaigner Caroline Criaso-Perez was subjected to online rape and murder threats in 2013, while the academic Mary Beard and the MP Stella Creasy have also received threats and sexist abuse via twitter
The internet may help discriminate feminsts ideas more widely but it also does the same for its polar opposite – woman hating views
Some critics has argued that the fourth wave of digital feminism might be exaggerated in ters of its influence on woman
Green and Singleton suggest that the online communities that are most popular with woman users
Mumsnet and Facebook might merely reinforce the patriarchal notion that woman should perform the emotional work of maintaining family relationships
Other examples of their activities include:
- Ikamara Larasi, 24, started a campaign to address racist and sexist stereotypes in music videos, just as students began banning the hit Blurred Lines on many UK campuses, in response to its sexist lyrics.
- Jinan Younis, 18, co-founded a feminist society at school, experienced online abuse from some boys in her peer group.
She wrote an article about it that went viral. She is now helping out with a campaign to encourage feminist societies in schools countrywide.
Thousands more feminists raised their voices online.
Bates and Chemaly were among those who set up a campaign against misogynist (sexist) pages on Facebook, convincing the owners of social media to change their moderation policies.
The fact that globalisation leads to the proliferation of a variety of different gendered identities means that digital communication can reduce the problem of women being essentialised
So, there are positive and negative effects of the internet on women – on the one hand it provides new ways for women to gather force in overcoming oppression, on the other hand, it leads to greater opportunities for the exploitation of women.
Evaluation of feminist views
Feminists are critical of the new opportunities that globalisation and digital forms of communication create to exploit women.
They argue that some forms of new digital communication are simply an extension of the older forms of traditional methods which reflect patriarchal ideology.
However, other feminists are optimistic and claim that these new forms of communication give rise to new ways of women being able to express themselves without falling into traditional assumptions about men and women, gender politics.
Evidence suggest that woman who use digital forms of communication may still be subjected to sexism, abuse and threats
Intenet may help disseminate feminists ideas more widely but it does the same for its polar opposite so woman hating views posted by male trolls
Green and Singleton suggest that online communities that are mot popular with woman users may reinforce the patriarchal notion that woman should perform the emotional work of maintaining family relationships
Postmodernism
Postmodernists see digital forms of communication as beneficial as they argue that global digital networks are primary responsible for diffusing different cultural styles around the world and creating a new global hybrid style sin fashion, food, music, consumption and lifestyle
Argued that in the postmodern world this cultural diversity will become the global norm
Postmodernists therefore see globalisation as a positive phenomenon as it has created a new class of global consumers in both the developed and the developing world with a greater range of choices in which they construct a hybridised global identity
In essence, these new forms of communication reflect a shift towards greater individual choice. With the huge amounts of information sharing that is possible as a result of the internet, people have a greater scope for developing different parts of their identity as well as building a range of different social networks.
Make 5 important observations about the relationship between postmodern societies and the role of digital media:
- Postmodern societies are media saturated societies which are new forms of digital communication therefore merely reflect the postmodern condition
- Postmodern societies are underpinned by globalisation – media transnationals have used digital communications technology such as the internet and satellite television to remove the distinction between the global and local and to increase consumer choice in the range of knowledge and entertainment available for consumption
- The diversity of digital forms of communication has undermined explanations that claimed absolute truths.
This resulted in the fragmentation of knowledge and encouraged people to see that there are multiple interpretations of truth in which all have some relative value
- People are no longer content to inherit fixed identities imposed from without such as social class or gender identity.
Instead social media networks and virtual communities offer people a plurality of identities from which to choose and consume and so subvert traditional forms of identity
- Audiences are immersed in so much information in the digital postmodern age that they find it difficult to distinguish between real life and the digital version of reality
Baudrillrd calls hyper reality
This led to some concerns about how people use digital forms of communication and whether such forms of communication are healthy for identity and relationships
However, there ideas about digital communication can be criticised as they fail to recognise inequalities in access to such technology
Consequently, postmodernism fails to offer any explanation for why some groups experience a digital divide and muted voice despite the diversity of choice available in digitiform of communication
Postmodernists probably exaggerate the impact of digital information explosion on ordinary people capacity to bring about change in their identities and lives
Identity and digital forms of communication
In the past, the ‘self’ (the way we see ourselves) has been understood through interpretivist sociologists such as Mead and Goffman and then through the poststructuralist Foucault.
More recently, postmodernism has attempted to make sense of how identity is created, negotiated and confirmed, including through technological advances.
Global digital forms of communication offer a whole range of different ways in which identity can be created.
The ways in which people use Facebook, for example, reveals much about how individuals create their own identity, how they see themselves and how others see them.
Postmodernists, such as Collins (2005), suggest that to understand society, the chains of interaction between people must be understood.
He suggests that by looking closely at how individuals construct their identity through social network sites such as Facebook, using a ‘micro’ sociological approach, it may be possible to learn about how people see the world around them.
It is also interesting to consider the difference in people’s on- and offline lives.
For example, Catfish a TV series was developed which follows the journey of couples who have formed an online relationship but have never met in person.
Each programme tells the stories of people hoping to meet romantic partners online, and each hourlong episode is filled with mystery, surprises, and sometimes even shocking revelations as one partner discovers the difference between peoples on and offline lives.
Facebook as a new form of autobiography?
Bjorklund (1998) explains that until recently, individuals have used autobiographies to describe their lives as they near the end of their life.
However in a postmodern world, she suggests that people take a different view of defining the self.
Digital forms of communication offer an ongoing autobiography which can be continually manipulated and updated.
Facebook, she suggests, is like an autobiography in that it keeps a record of how people see their lives.
Similarly, according to Hart (2011) individuals today are writing and rewriting their autobiographies on a daily basis, which reflect their own values and the values of their particular society.
Identity, therefore is now created both online and offline, in multiple ways.
For example, by posting a picture on Facebook the construction of the self occurs and from this, social networks are developed by finding similar like-minded friends.
The effects of this use of social media are to some extent less known, and will need researching over the coming years before any definitive conclusions can be drawn.
Case (2007) suggests that this can present a challenge especially to adolescents who in effect have two adolescences; one online and one offline.
She claims that the nature of new social media makes it harder to remove mistakes as every interaction is visible, like an audit trail.
For example, many people do not realise that much of what they say is stored by social media companies and is hard to remove or edit.
This can cause tension and conflict between individuals, for example, resulting in disputes due to the disclosure of private information
Some sociologists such as Elliot (2001) are pessimistic about the fragmented nature of identity as a result of sites such as Facebook, whilst others prefer to see new ways of seeing the self as only problematic when considered using ‘modern’ theories.
Hart (2011) suggests for example that there is a tendency of traditional interpretations of the self to regard postings on Facebook as trivial or superficial.
However if one is to take a postmodern approach, events on Facebook such as status updates can be understood as culturally significant as they reflect people’s feelings and actions in a particular social context.
Therefore digital communication is an important way of exploring and understanding the complex ways in which identity is created
Digital media and surveillance
As we have seen, some Marxists argue that digital forms of communication provide new and more sophisticated ways for the state and commercial companies to control people. Postmodernists also explore the role of digital media in acting as a form of surveillance.
For example, the post structuralist Foucault (1977) argues that in fact surveillance is likely to become the most effective means of regulating behaviour and reducing crime in contemporary society.
According to Foucault, a person who knows that they are being watched is less likely to commit a crime as their chances of being caught are that much greater.
In a different yet interesting new way, people are controlled through increasing amounts of information being collected, building a profile of their behaviour.
Supermarkets, for example, collect information about the tastes, preferences and habits of their customers through customer loyalty cards, and online shopping.
Evaluation
Each theoretical perspective takes a very different interpretation of the role of digital communication.
It is clear that the digital communication needs to be understood within the context of the globalisation process.
Although Marxists regard the changes as favouring the powerful, both feminists and postmodernists explore the way in which digital communication has positive and negative effects simultaneously often fail to recognise inequalities in access to digital technology
Fail to offer an explanation for why some groups experience a digital divide and muted voice despite the diversity of choice available in digital forms of communication
Probably exaggerate the impact of the digital information explosion on ordinary peoples capacity to bring about change in their social identities and lives