The Presidency of Nixon 1969-1974
What measures did Nixon introduce to improve conditions for NAs?
There were already some signs of change towards NAs before 1969 as it was realised that the conditions and opportunities of the ‘true’ Americans were the worst out of any group in the USA.
- Johnson in March 1968 had spoken to Congress about NAs being ‘The Forgotten Americans’ and set out a programme to promote self-help and respect.
- One of the last ideas of Johnson was to launch a policy of Affirmative Action, which would seek to ensure that any organisation that received federal funds, also operated a policy of inclusion towards racial minorities. -This was taken an implemented during the Nixon era.
However, things only changed substantially during the presidencies of Nixon and Ford.
In July 1970, Nixon in his address to Congress criticised the treatment of NAs:
‘American Indians have been oppressed and brutalised, deprived of their ancestral lands and denied the opportunity to control their own destiny.’
- In particular, he attacked the federal programmes, designed to help them, but which had been dominated by white officials.
- He also attacked the policy of termination which had failed to improve their lives, and instead ended many lives instead.
Nixon introduced a programme of reform:
- 1972 Indian Education Act.
Educational provision was improved through this act. It increased the amount of money available for NA schools, even on reservations.
This policy was continued by future presidents.
In 1970, the average education level for all Indians was just over 8 years, with only 36% of Indian heads of households completing Secondary School.
By 1980, $134 per child reached 80% of students.
- Some NA nations, which had lost their status, regained recognition and rights. This allowed them to access courts where they could seek redress for their lost rights.
- The pledge to restore lost lands was put into practice with the return of lands to the Makah, Taos Pueblo and Yakama Indians.
- A Native American, Louis R. Bruce Jr, was appointed Commissioner for the BIA and a policy of affirmative action was pursued in other appointments to roles in the BIA.
Although the process of regaining tribal lands was slow, a start had been made.
The Presidency of Gerald Ford 1974-1976 (serving half of Nixon’s second term)
Two important pieces of legislation were passed during this period:
- 1975 Indian Self-Determination Act.
This set out the process by which tribes could take responsibility for their own education, health and social service position.
Federal funding was provided for these programmes promoting self-sufficiency.
- 1975 Indian Education Assistance Act.
Allowed NA parents to have much greater involvement in their children’s educational process.
The Presidency of Jimmy Carter 1976-1980
- 1978 Native American Religious Freedom Act.
Gave NAs the right to freely practice their tribal religions and use both sacred objects and rituals.
- 1978 Indian Child Welfare Act.
This attempted to regulate the forced removal of NA children from their families.
Social workers throughout the 20th Century had often viewed NA practices as neglect and had therefore been taking children away.
The Presidency of Ronald Reagan 1980-1988
There was some decline in the position of NAs as the economic situation worsened at the end of the period:
- The programmes introduced in previous years were dependent on federal funding, and without this they could not continue at the same pace.
(This however did not mean that Reagan hated NAs.)
Reagan’s attitude and support of native capitalism didn’t help either:
Native Capitalism- A belief in developing profitable businesses among NAs so that the spending of federal and state government could be reduced.
By 1992 the policy of assimilation had ended and replaced by self-determination, supported by funding from the federal government.