A Level

Management strategies for global water cycle

Forestry: UN + World Bank fund programmes to protect rainforests REDD scheme fund 50+ partner countries World Wildlife Fund (WWF) + Amazon Regional Protected Areas (ARPA) supported by UN in brazil to protect forests. Covers 10% Amazon basin (areas strictly protected)...

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Short-term changes

Diurnal (daily) Changes – Water = Low temps reduce evapotranspiration at night. Convection rainfall significant in Tropical convectional storms occurs during the day. Carbon = Daytime photosynthesis by terrestrial vegetation and phytoplankton. Flux reversed at night....

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Long-term Changes

For 1 million years the global climate has been unstable, with large fluctuations in temperatures at regular intervals. In the past 400,000 yrs there has been 4 major glacial cycles (cold glacials followed by warmer interglacials). Glacials and the water cycle = Sea...

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Links and interdependence in the two cycles

Atmosphere: • Atmospheric CO2 has a greenhouse effect. • CO2 plays a vital role in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and phytoplankton. • Plants are important C stores which extract water from the soil and transpire. • Water is evaporated from oceans to atmosphere,...

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Impact of long-term climate change of the cycles

Water: • Increased evaporation and atmospheric water store. Positive feedback of water vapour increases global temps, evaporation and transpiration. • Increased precipitation in urban areas leads to flood risks. • Water vapour is an atmospheric source of energy,...

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Management strategies for global carbon cycle

Afforestation: • C sink, reduce atmospheric CO2, flood risks and soil erosion. • UN’s Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) schemes encourage LIDCs to conserve their forests, now has over 60 official partner countries. Wetland Restoration:...

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Variations to cycles over time

Monitored by Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and used to analyse environmental change. Regional variations in sources and sinks helps identify sequestration and emission management options. Vital to manage global challenges of climate change, water, food and...

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Case Study – The Arctic Tundra

Location, Vegetation and Climate: Occupies 8 million km2 in N.Canada, Alaska and Siberia. Continuous vegetation in Boreal Forest (southern) to discontinuous (northern). Low biodiversity and NPP. Average monthly temps sub 0 prevent evapotranspiration (ground...

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Land use change and water extraction

Urbanisation – Water • Impermeable surfaces reduce infiltration. • Urban drainage systems remove surface water rapidly. • River water levels rise rapidly due to fast transfer of surface water. • Developments on floodplains reduce storage capacity and increase flood...

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Fossil fuel combustion

• High global dependency 80% global energy consumption • 10 billion tonnes CO2 released annually. • Transfer from geological stores to atmosphere and oceans. • CO2 atmospheric levels highest in 800,000 years, risen above 400ppm. Although anthropogenic carbon emissions...

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Feedback in response to change in equilibrium

Water: • Rising temp Positive feedback – More evaporation, atmosphere holds more water in clouds, increased absorption of long wave-radiation. • Decreasing temp Negative feedback – More atmospheric vapour in clouds cover, reflected solar radiation, less radiation...

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Case Study – The Amazon Rainforest

Location, Vegetation and Climate: Straddles equator between the tropics. South America - 70% Brazil Brazilian Shield = large metamorphic field that limits infiltration and encourages surface flow. Tall, evergreen, hardwood trees. High NPP, biomass 500 tonnes/ha...

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The carbon cycle is a system with inputs, outputs and stores

• Lithosphere – Sedimentary rocks (99.9%) and fossil fuels. • Hydrosphere – Oceans Surface layer phytoplankton photosynthesis and diffusion Intermediate and deep layer marine food chains and sea floor sediments Calcium carbonate shells • Terrestrial/biosphere organic...

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The characteristics of the water cycle

The water balance: Precipitation = evapotranspiration + streamflow +/- storage • Precipitation forms when vapour in the atmosphere cools to its dew point and condenses to form droplets which aggregate and leave clouds. • Cumuliform clouds (high with flat bases) form...

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The water cycle is a system with inputs, outputs and stores

Global water cycle: • Oceanic - holds 97% of global water with ¾ in ice caps. • Cryospheric water- high altitudes and latitudes Accumulation is input to a glacial system Ablation is output from melting. Sublimation is ice directly into water vapour. • Terrestrial –...

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Emergent coastal landscapes form as sea levels fall

Raised Beaches and Abandoned Cliffs: Areas of former shore platforms that are left at a higher level than present sea level. • Inland from present coastline, possibly with abandoned cliffs, wave cut notches, caves, etc behind beach. • After emergence no longer...

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Submergent coastal landscapes form as sea level rises

Shingle Beach: When sea levels fell as the volume of land-based ice grows, areas of ‘new’ land emerged from the sea. As sea levels rose former coastal sediment is pushed onshore by wave action. • Sediment accumulates on new land due to river deposition, meltwater...

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Intentional effects of human activity – management

Case Study- Adelaide Metropolitan Beaches: Human and physical factors affecting coastal landscapes Location = City in S Australia, Indian Ocean and Great Australian Bight to the South. Unintentional changes = Littoral drift north and sand removed for development...

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The formation of distinctive depositional landforms

Beaches: Formed by the accumulation of material deposited between high and low tides. As sediment size increases so does beach angle. Storm beach – Storm waves hurl pebbles to back of beach. Berms – Smaller ridges that develop at high tide mark. Cusps – Small,...

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How coastal landforms evolve over time as climate changes

Eustatic = Changes in volume of water in global ocean store. Isostatic = Changes in land-level. Physical factors include variations in earth’s orbit around the sun (400,000yrs), variations in solar energy (ll yrs), atmospheric composition due to volcanic eruptions and...

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Coastal sediment is supplied from a variety of sources

Sediment budget: The balance between inputs and the removal of sediment. Positive budget is accretion of material on shoreline, negative budget causes the shoreline to recede landwards. Human – Beach nourishment Offshore – Marine deposition Terrestrial – Fluvial (90%...

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The formation of distinctive erosional landforms

Cliffs and wave-cut platforms: • High energy waves concentrate erosion at cliff base. • Cliff undercut to form wave-cut notch. • Undercut cliff collapses and retreats, leaving a gently-sloping forefront (wave-cut platform). • Wave cut platform extended by abrasion,...

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Coastal landscapes can be viewed as systems

Inputs = Kinetic energy from wind/waves. Sediment from weathering, mass movement and fluvial discharge. Outputs = Aeolian and marine erosion, dredging and mining and offshore sediment transfer. Throughputs = Stores of beach sediment and flows such as longshore drift....

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What are the main hazards generated by seismic activity?

Earthquakes represent the release of stress built up in the Earth’s crust due to tension, compression or shearing of rocks. A series of shockwaves originate from the earthquake focus and this point on the Earth’s surface is the epicentre. 95% energy released in first...

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Earthquakes generate distinctive hazards

Ground shaking and Displacement: Locations close to epicentre, high magnitude and water content experience extreme ground shaking- Kobe, Japan 1995. Buildings withstand vertical movements better than horizontal. Surface displacement affects drainage, sewers, railways,...

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What are the main hazards generated by volcanic activity?

Different types of volcanoes: Super Volcanoes: Volcanoes that erupt over 1,000km3 of material in a single event. Yellowstone super-volcano in Wyoming, caldera 75km in diameter. Hot Spots: Basaltic Lava Constructive Margins Lower viscosity, hotter (1200 degrees) and...

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The contrast between two places in social inequality

Case study – Jembarten Besi, Indonesia An informal settlement of over 4000 people 4km northwest of Central Jakarta - the capital of Indonesia, Southeast Asia Despite embracing democratic and decentralised government, disparities between socio-economic groups and...

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Making a successful place requires planning and design

Case Study – Stratford, London: London 2012 Olympics cost 12 billion and attracted 9 billion investments to East London. Significant legacy of socio-economic improvements, however neglected to involve local stakeholders to preserve sense of place. Why was the London...

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How a range of strategies can be used to rebrand

Rebranding strategies: Rebranding elements: A range of players and their role in place making: Player/Stakeholder = Individual or organisation with an interest and or influence in actions, decisions and operations. Includes: Governments at various scales and regional...

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Place is produced in a variety of ways at different scales

The concept of placemaking and the role of governments and organisations: Placemaking = an approach to the planning, design and management of public spaces. It aims to be creative and collaborative, producing sustainable places which meet the communities needs and...

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Impacts on development

Global Migration → inequalities, conflicts and injustices Global migration → stability, economic growth and development

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Contemporary patters of global migration

2017 United Nations Population Fund (UNPF): ➔ 258mil international migrants / 3.4% global population / 1 in 30 people ➔ 60% live in Asia or Europe ➔ India largest origin country ➔ USA hosts 50 million, 15 million increase from 2000 ➔ Over 1 million Polish in UK ➔...

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Strategies for global governance of human rights

Strategies • Attempts to change + modernise norms • Non-government organisations (NGOs) such as charities – Oxfam • Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) of multi-national companies (MNCs) • Laws + treaties • UN peacekeeping operations • Humanitarian (military)...

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Gender Inequality

The unequal treatment of individuals based on their gender. Global Gender Gap Index Created by World Economic Forum (WEF) Factors explaining variation Linked to a range of factors that cause HR inequalities. Employment: • Social norms of women as unpaid domestic...

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Maternal Mortality

The death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 weeks of termination of pregnancy from any cause related to/aggravated by the pregnancy or its management. MMR = annual number of these deaths/100,000 live births. Globally 830 women die per day – 99% in LIDCs and over...

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Human Rights Violations

e.g. child labour, people trafficking, genocide and modern slavery. Socioeconomic inequalities correlate closely with HR inequalities. Globalisation, transnational integration and increased mobility has both strengthened and diminished HR: • Enhanced society’s ability...

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Intervention

HR intervention example strategies • Separating government from religion and International advisors → democratic and coherent government. • Sanitation for young women and NGO school development → Education • Minimum wage system → Stable employment • Border and...

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Geopolitics

Global balance of power and international relations Patterns of political and economic power closely related – Relative wealth and international trade strength. Geopolitical issues of HR global governance: • Political composition • Nature of intervention • Reasons for...

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The use of oceans as escape routes for migrants

Types of migration International Monetary Fund (IMF) defines globalisation as ‘the growing economic interdependence of countries worldwide through increasing volume and variety of crossborder transactions in goods and services, freer international capital flows, and...

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Human Rights

Basic rights and freedoms inherent to all human beings, to which all people are entitled without discrimination. Keep society fair, just and equal. 1948 UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights 30 universal and interdependent articles. UN cannot force states to...

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Oceans present hazardous obstacles to human activities

Piracy: The act of boarding any vessel with intent to commit theft or any other crime, and with intent or capacity to use force in furtherance of this. Hot spots: Somalia, Indonesia and Nigeria Vulnerable route through Gulf of Aden and Red Sea, the Malacca and...

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Climate change is altering high latitude oceans

60 degrees North or South Formation of sea ice: 1. In the high latitudes more heat leaves the system than is inputted creating annual net deficit in heat budget. 2. Deficit occurs because the sun’s rays hit the surface at a low angle meaning less energy is spread over...

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Climate change is altering sea levels

Monitored by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Eustatic sea level change is increasing, currently 3.00mm per year. If all ice fields melted sea level would rise 70m. Causes • Thermal expansion of water Global warming increases surface temperatures and...

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Climate change and the ocean system

Ocean acidification 30% anthropogenic CO2 produced in the last 250 yrs has been absorbed in the ocean sink. Rising temperature reduces ability to absorb. Tipping point = the critical threshold which leads to irreversible change if passed Average global surface ocean...

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Ocean currents disperse / concentrate pollution

Ocean circulation Marine debris from fluvial discharge, ship dumping and accidental discard. Global pollution: • ¾ UK beaches polluted with nurdles • Fishery equipment and ropes; breakdown forms microplastics • Most polluted place – Henderson Island, 17,000 tonnes...

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The world’s oceans are a distinctive feature of the Earth

The global distribution of the world’s oceans: The relief of ocean basins: Water deepens along continental shelf. Slope angle increases at continental slope. Wide, gently sloping continental rise. Flattest and deepest section abyssal plain which includes seamounts...

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Water in the world’s oceans varies

Horizontal and vertical changes in salinity and temperature: Salinity = A measure of the concentration of salt (NaCl). Measured as g per 1000g water (ppt) by NASA’s Aquarius Satellite. Freshwater - <0.5ppt Seawater – 35ppt Salinity is lowest in the surface zone and...

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The biodiversity of oceans

Factors affecting oceanic ecosystems: Net Primary Productivity (NPP) = the amount of carbon fixed by photosynthesis that exceeds respiration demands of the plant and goes into growth. Light Most intense over the equator. With increasing distance from the equator,...

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A comparison of inter-tidal and deep-water ecosystems

An inter-tidal ecosystem: a salt marsh Salt marsh = coastal wetlands where ocean meets the land, common in mid-high latitudes. Form in sheltered estuaries where shallow water covers a low coastal gradient. Affected by incoming (flood) and outgoing (ebb) tides which...

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