Forestry: UN + World Bank fund programmes to protect rainforests REDD scheme fund 50+ partner countries World Wildlife Fund (WWF) + Amazon Regional Protected Areas (ARPA) supported by UN in brazil to protect forests. Covers 10% Amazon basin (areas strictly protected)...
Diurnal (daily) Changes – Water = Low temps reduce evapotranspiration at night. Convection rainfall significant in Tropical convectional storms occurs during the day. Carbon = Daytime photosynthesis by terrestrial vegetation and phytoplankton. Flux reversed at night....
For 1 million years the global climate has been unstable, with large fluctuations in temperatures at regular intervals. In the past 400,000 yrs there has been 4 major glacial cycles (cold glacials followed by warmer interglacials). Glacials and the water cycle = Sea...
Atmosphere: • Atmospheric CO2 has a greenhouse effect. • CO2 plays a vital role in photosynthesis by terrestrial plants and phytoplankton. • Plants are important C stores which extract water from the soil and transpire. • Water is evaporated from oceans to atmosphere,...
• Deforestation Reduces C store in biosphere and carbon fixation by photosynthesis. Increased soil erosion declines soil C store. Forest trees transfer water by transpiration and reduced interception increases run-off (20-30%) leading to flooding. E.g – The Amazon...
Water: • Increased evaporation and atmospheric water store. Positive feedback of water vapour increases global temps, evaporation and transpiration. • Increased precipitation in urban areas leads to flood risks. • Water vapour is an atmospheric source of energy,...
Afforestation: • C sink, reduce atmospheric CO2, flood risks and soil erosion. • UN’s Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) schemes encourage LIDCs to conserve their forests, now has over 60 official partner countries. Wetland Restoration:...
Monitored by Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and used to analyse environmental change. Regional variations in sources and sinks helps identify sequestration and emission management options. Vital to manage global challenges of climate change, water, food and...
Location, Vegetation and Climate: Occupies 8 million km2 in N.Canada, Alaska and Siberia. Continuous vegetation in Boreal Forest (southern) to discontinuous (northern). Low biodiversity and NPP. Average monthly temps sub 0 prevent evapotranspiration (ground...
Human factors and the water cycle – The Aral Sea • Central Asia, used to be the fourth largest lake globally, now just 10% remains • Sea receded, rain stopped due to draining of the Syr Darya and Amu Darya rivers for Soviet cotton industry irrigation. • Division into...
Urbanisation – Water • Impermeable surfaces reduce infiltration. • Urban drainage systems remove surface water rapidly. • River water levels rise rapidly due to fast transfer of surface water. • Developments on floodplains reduce storage capacity and increase flood...
• High global dependency 80% global energy consumption • 10 billion tonnes CO2 released annually. • Transfer from geological stores to atmosphere and oceans. • CO2 atmospheric levels highest in 800,000 years, risen above 400ppm. Although anthropogenic carbon emissions...
Water: • Rising temp Positive feedback – More evaporation, atmosphere holds more water in clouds, increased absorption of long wave-radiation. • Decreasing temp Negative feedback – More atmospheric vapour in clouds cover, reflected solar radiation, less radiation...
Location, Vegetation and Climate: Straddles equator between the tropics. South America - 70% Brazil Brazilian Shield = large metamorphic field that limits infiltration and encourages surface flow. Tall, evergreen, hardwood trees. High NPP, biomass 500 tonnes/ha...
• Lithosphere – Sedimentary rocks (99.9%) and fossil fuels. • Hydrosphere – Oceans Surface layer phytoplankton photosynthesis and diffusion Intermediate and deep layer marine food chains and sea floor sediments Calcium carbonate shells • Terrestrial/biosphere organic...
The water balance: Precipitation = evapotranspiration + streamflow +/- storage • Precipitation forms when vapour in the atmosphere cools to its dew point and condenses to form droplets which aggregate and leave clouds. • Cumuliform clouds (high with flat bases) form...
Case Study- Mangawhai-Pakiri Coastline: Unintentional consequences of economic development Location = East coast of New Zealand’s Northland Peninsula. Reasons for economic development = High quality sand for modern economy; glass, concrete, beach replenishment...
Importance of water: • Creates benign thermal conditions. Oceans are 71% of the world’s surface and they absorb, store and slowly release heat. Clouds reflect 1/5 of insolation. Water vapour (potent greenhouse gas) absorbs long-wave radiation and maintains global...
Global water cycle: • Oceanic - holds 97% of global water with ¾ in ice caps. • Cryospheric water- high altitudes and latitudes Accumulation is input to a glacial system Ablation is output from melting. Sublimation is ice directly into water vapour. • Terrestrial –...
Raised Beaches and Abandoned Cliffs: Areas of former shore platforms that are left at a higher level than present sea level. • Inland from present coastline, possibly with abandoned cliffs, wave cut notches, caves, etc behind beach. • After emergence no longer...
Shingle Beach: When sea levels fell as the volume of land-based ice grows, areas of ‘new’ land emerged from the sea. As sea levels rose former coastal sediment is pushed onshore by wave action. • Sediment accumulates on new land due to river deposition, meltwater...
Case Study- Adelaide Metropolitan Beaches: Human and physical factors affecting coastal landscapes Location = City in S Australia, Indian Ocean and Great Australian Bight to the South. Unintentional changes = Littoral drift north and sand removed for development...
Beaches: Formed by the accumulation of material deposited between high and low tides. As sediment size increases so does beach angle. Storm beach – Storm waves hurl pebbles to back of beach. Berms – Smaller ridges that develop at high tide mark. Cusps – Small,...
Eustatic = Changes in volume of water in global ocean store. Isostatic = Changes in land-level. Physical factors include variations in earth’s orbit around the sun (400,000yrs), variations in solar energy (ll yrs), atmospheric composition due to volcanic eruptions and...
Wind: Aeolian energy is the primary source for other processes. Influence wave type created by frictional drag of wind on water. Fetch is the distance of open water the wind blows over and prevailing wind is the most frequent wind direction. Waves: • Formation =...
Sediment budget: The balance between inputs and the removal of sediment. Positive budget is accretion of material on shoreline, negative budget causes the shoreline to recede landwards. Human – Beach nourishment Offshore – Marine deposition Terrestrial – Fluvial (90%...
Mechanical Weathering: • Freeze thaw = Water expands in rocks by 10% when frozen. Pressure causes splits. • Pressure release = Underlying rock fractures parallel to surface as it expands when overlying rock is removed. • Thermal expansion = Rocks expand when heated...
Cliffs and wave-cut platforms: • High energy waves concentrate erosion at cliff base. • Cliff undercut to form wave-cut notch. • Undercut cliff collapses and retreats, leaving a gently-sloping forefront (wave-cut platform). • Wave cut platform extended by abrasion,...
Change in the frequency and impact of tectonic hazards: The number of natural disasters has increased over time, but the increase in earthquakes and volcanic eruptions is less pronounced. On average there are now 30 volcanic eruptions and earthquakes a year....
Inputs = Kinetic energy from wind/waves. Sediment from weathering, mass movement and fluvial discharge. Outputs = Aeolian and marine erosion, dredging and mining and offshore sediment transfer. Throughputs = Stores of beach sediment and flows such as longshore drift....
Include mitigation and adaption strategies, together with assessment of risk and resilience. ACs are more able to invest in the most advanced protection and often expertise is sent to LIDCs. Volcanic Management: Prediction: • Remote sensing (long term changes, crater,...
Prediction: Currently no reliable way to accurately predict when an earthquake will occur, but it can be used to indicate likely locations. • Remote sensing (plate movements and electromagnetic disturbances). Allows sharing of GIS data with LIDCs. • Seismic Records...
Earthquakes represent the release of stress built up in the Earth’s crust due to tension, compression or shearing of rocks. A series of shockwaves originate from the earthquake focus and this point on the Earth’s surface is the epicentre. 95% energy released in first...
Ground shaking and Displacement: Locations close to epicentre, high magnitude and water content experience extreme ground shaking- Kobe, Japan 1995. Buildings withstand vertical movements better than horizontal. Surface displacement affects drainage, sewers, railways,...
People continue to live in tectonically active locations for a range of sociocultural, economic and environment reasons, such as: • Weathered lava produces fertile soils • Volcanoes provide opportunity for economic activity such as tourism • Tectonically active areas...
Different types of volcanoes: Super Volcanoes: Volcanoes that erupt over 1,000km3 of material in a single event. Yellowstone super-volcano in Wyoming, caldera 75km in diameter. Hot Spots: Basaltic Lava Constructive Margins Lower viscosity, hotter (1200 degrees) and...
Earth Structure: The lithosphere is the crust and the rigid upper section of the mantle (80-90km thick). It is divided into 7 large tectonic plates. The asthenosphere is a semi-molten layer in the mantle where rocks are easily deformed. Several 100s of kms thick, with...
Case study – Jembarten Besi, Indonesia An informal settlement of over 4000 people 4km northwest of Central Jakarta - the capital of Indonesia, Southeast Asia Despite embracing democratic and decentralised government, disparities between socio-economic groups and...
Case Study – Stratford, London: London 2012 Olympics cost 12 billion and attracted 9 billion investments to East London. Significant legacy of socio-economic improvements, however neglected to involve local stakeholders to preserve sense of place. Why was the London...
Rebranding strategies: Rebranding elements: A range of players and their role in place making: Player/Stakeholder = Individual or organisation with an interest and or influence in actions, decisions and operations. Includes: Governments at various scales and regional...
Why places rebrand to construct a different place meaning: All places have an image that affects people’s perception of that place and if this is negative then rebranding can be attempted to make it more attractive to investment that it is competing for. Most...
Many ACs have undergone deindustrialisation when they lost a competitive advantage in many manufacturing sectors. In the 1970s UK cities, economies and societies were affected, leading to multiple deprivation in many urban areas. Multiplier effect = the process by...
The role of players in driving economic change: At any scale, change is brought about by the interaction of a considerable numbers of players or stakeholders. Players = individuals, groups of people or formal organisations who can influence the process of change,...
The concept of placemaking and the role of governments and organisations: Placemaking = an approach to the planning, design and management of public spaces. It aims to be creative and collaborative, producing sustainable places which meet the communities needs and...
The influence of globalisation in driving structural economic change in places: Globalisation = the growing integration and interdependence of people’s lives in a complex process with economic, social, political and environmental components. Transnational corporations...
The complexities that exist when trying to define place: Place = something with an objective or subjective meaning that defines it such as an address or your home. Culture, ethnicity education and money affect interpretation. There are three concepts of place -...
Social Inequality = When unequal opportunities exist for people within a society and between different social statuses. Spatial Inequality = the unequal distribution of factors such as income, education or health across geographic space at any time. Quality of life =...
Wealth: Disposable income dependent on cost of living. Housing: Poor quality accommodation can create ill-health. Housing costs inflate faster than wages. Wealthy migration and second homes in rural areas raised property prices. Health: Deprivation leads to...
Economic globalisation Globalisation is leading to the emergence of new source areas and host destinations Inter-regional: Migration of highly-skilled workers (graduates and science experts) China, India + Brazil → USA. Migration of workers India, Pakistan +...
Global Migration → inequalities, conflicts and injustices Global migration → stability, economic growth and development
Promotion of stability, growth and development through flows of people, money, ideas and technology UN and IOM recognise migration as a key factor in development Multiplier effect – economic growth stimulates further development Factors affecting migration ➔ Trade...
Essential for development shown in the UN’s Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) + Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Effects of HR global governance on citizens and places Case study – The impact of HRs global governance in Honduras, an LIDC
2017 United Nations Population Fund (UNPF): ➔ 258mil international migrants / 3.4% global population / 1 in 30 people ➔ 60% live in Asia or Europe ➔ India largest origin country ➔ USA hosts 50 million, 15 million increase from 2000 ➔ Over 1 million Polish in UK ➔...
Strategies • Attempts to change + modernise norms • Non-government organisations (NGOs) such as charities – Oxfam • Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) of multi-national companies (MNCs) • Laws + treaties • UN peacekeeping operations • Humanitarian (military)...
The unequal treatment of individuals based on their gender. Global Gender Gap Index Created by World Economic Forum (WEF) Factors explaining variation Linked to a range of factors that cause HR inequalities. Employment: • Social norms of women as unpaid domestic...
The death of a woman while pregnant or within 42 weeks of termination of pregnancy from any cause related to/aggravated by the pregnancy or its management. MMR = annual number of these deaths/100,000 live births. Globally 830 women die per day – 99% in LIDCs and over...
e.g. child labour, people trafficking, genocide and modern slavery. Socioeconomic inequalities correlate closely with HR inequalities. Globalisation, transnational integration and increased mobility has both strengthened and diminished HR: • Enhanced society’s ability...
HR intervention example strategies • Separating government from religion and International advisors → democratic and coherent government. • Sanitation for young women and NGO school development → Education • Minimum wage system → Stable employment • Border and...
Global balance of power and international relations Patterns of political and economic power closely related – Relative wealth and international trade strength. Geopolitical issues of HR global governance: • Political composition • Nature of intervention • Reasons for...
Types of migration International Monetary Fund (IMF) defines globalisation as ‘the growing economic interdependence of countries worldwide through increasing volume and variety of crossborder transactions in goods and services, freer international capital flows, and...
Basic rights and freedoms inherent to all human beings, to which all people are entitled without discrimination. Keep society fair, just and equal. 1948 UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights 30 universal and interdependent articles. UN cannot force states to...
Piracy: The act of boarding any vessel with intent to commit theft or any other crime, and with intent or capacity to use force in furtherance of this. Hot spots: Somalia, Indonesia and Nigeria Vulnerable route through Gulf of Aden and Red Sea, the Malacca and...
The importance of the oceans in the process of globalisation Globalisation = the growing integration and interdependence of people’s lives in a complex process with economic, social (cultural), political and environmental components. Time-space compression = a set of...
Many marine boundaries continue to be disputed, especially where there are known to be resources of energy, minerals or fish stocks. Tensions are likely to increase as populations continue to grow and become more affluent, increasing necessity for resources as current...
60 degrees North or South Formation of sea ice: 1. In the high latitudes more heat leaves the system than is inputted creating annual net deficit in heat budget. 2. Deficit occurs because the sun’s rays hit the surface at a low angle meaning less energy is spread over...
Monitored by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Eustatic sea level change is increasing, currently 3.00mm per year. If all ice fields melted sea level would rise 70m. Causes • Thermal expansion of water Global warming increases surface temperatures and...
Ocean acidification 30% anthropogenic CO2 produced in the last 250 yrs has been absorbed in the ocean sink. Rising temperature reduces ability to absorb. Tipping point = the critical threshold which leads to irreversible change if passed Average global surface ocean...
Ocean circulation Marine debris from fluvial discharge, ship dumping and accidental discard. Global pollution: • ¾ UK beaches polluted with nurdles • Fishery equipment and ropes; breakdown forms microplastics • Most polluted place – Henderson Island, 17,000 tonnes...
Pollution Occurs when human activity adds a substance to the environment that affects organisms adversely and at a greater rate than at which it can be rendered harmless. Point source = release of pollutants from a single, clearly identifiable source Non-point source...
Oceans as ‘global commons’ Domains that lie outside the political reach of any one nation state (High seas, atmosphere, Antarctica, outer space). Tragedy of the Commons: An economic problem by Garret Hardin (American ecologist) – Exploitation overwhelms supply due to...
Oil and gas Non-renewable = resources that are finite on human timescales. “It makes no sense to talk about the sustainable use of a non-renewable resource (even with substantial effort + use rates). Any positive rate of exploitation will eventually lead to exhaustion...
The global distribution of the world’s oceans: The relief of ocean basins: Water deepens along continental shelf. Slope angle increases at continental slope. Wide, gently sloping continental rise. Flattest and deepest section abyssal plain which includes seamounts...
Horizontal and vertical changes in salinity and temperature: Salinity = A measure of the concentration of salt (NaCl). Measured as g per 1000g water (ppt) by NASA’s Aquarius Satellite. Freshwater - <0.5ppt Seawater – 35ppt Salinity is lowest in the surface zone and...
Factors affecting oceanic ecosystems: Net Primary Productivity (NPP) = the amount of carbon fixed by photosynthesis that exceeds respiration demands of the plant and goes into growth. Light Most intense over the equator. With increasing distance from the equator,...
An inter-tidal ecosystem: a salt marsh Salt marsh = coastal wetlands where ocean meets the land, common in mid-high latitudes. Form in sheltered estuaries where shallow water covers a low coastal gradient. Affected by incoming (flood) and outgoing (ebb) tides which...
Biological resources within oceans can be used in sustainable or unsustainable ways Ecosystem services The processes by which the environment produces resources used by humans such as oxygen, food, water + minerals. Supporting services: Necessary for production of all...