Antarctica and the Arctic
- Antarctica and the Arctic are both polar ecosystems, but they are slightly different
- The Arctic is usually defined as the region north of the Arctic Circle – about 66° north
- Average summer temperatures are less than 10°C and winter temperatures are -20°C – -40°C
- Annual precipitation is less than 500mm
- In December it is in complete darkness
- In June it is in sunlight for 24 hours a day
- The angle of the sun means that the rays are spread over a large area, so give less intense heat
- The icy surface means the albedo effect occurs in which much of the Sun’s energy is reflected to space
- Sinking air brings high pressure and dry, desert conditions
- With low temperatures, little water evaporates so few clouds can be formed
- Most of the Arctic is made up of ocean, which has lots of drifting pack ice and icebergs
- The sea ice extends further in winter
- On land there are mountainous regions, areas that are permanently covered with snow and ice, and areas of treeless tundra
- Arctic florae include low-lying shrubs, lichen, moss and some flowering plants
- Arctic faunae include whales, seals, fish, wolves, polar bears, reindeer, caribou and many birds
- Most animals are adapted to the specific conditions of the Arctic
- Antarctica is the continent at the South Pole
- Summer temperatures are -20°C – -5°C and winter temperatures can reach -90°C
- Annual precipitation is 50mm inland and 200mm at the coast
- In June it is in complete darkness
- In December it is in sunlight for 24 hours a day
- The angle of the sun means that the rays are spread over a large area, so give less intense heat
- The icy surface means the albedo effect occurs in which much of the Sun’s energy is reflected to space
- Sinking air brings high pressure and dry, desert conditions
- With low temperatures, little water evaporates so few clouds can be formed
- Antarctica is a land mass which is 99% covered with an ice sheet
- A few mountains protrude from the ice
- The sea freezes in the winter, nearly doubling the continent size
- Antarctica has very little flora, mainly moss and lichen
- The sea contains lots of phytoplankton
- Antarctica faunae include whales, seals, penguins and sea-birds
- All animals rely on the sea for food and space
Interdependence in the Arctic
- Climate, soil, water, plants, animals and human activities are interdependent in the Arctic
- The cold dry climate means that plant biodiversity is low because the underlying rock weathers slowly and few nutrients enter the soil, so plants can’t grow well
- Ocean currents and winds open gaps in the sea ice, this increases light levels in the water meaning producers can produce more food, this causes fish populations and supporting consumers to increase
- If temperatures increase, more sea ice melts, meaning animals, such as seals and polar bears which rely on sea ice for breeding and hunting, are threatened
- In the tundra, the cold climate causes plants to grow slowly and decompose slowly, meaning that the soil is low in nutrients, further reducing growth rates
- In summer, the surface layer of soil thaws and plant cover increases
- Plants absorb heat from the Sun, and prevent the permafrost from thawing
- Slow melting of the upper layer of permafrost provides water for plants
Human Activity in the Arctic
- Scientists use polar environments for important research which has a positive impact on global environmental management, and on management of the Arctic
- When rubbish is dumped into the sea or equipment is abandoned, the land and sea become polluted, risking wildlife
- Research stations and ships produce chemical and sewage pollution, however this is limited
- The Arctic has a population of about 4 million
- The Inuit people live in Greenland and Canada
- Traditional indigenous people rely on reindeer herding, or fishing and hunting to sustain themselves
- This is not excessive and does not upset the balance of the ecosystem
- Many indigenous people live in modern towns and cities
- Such as Anchorage in Canada
- This impacts the environment through waste disposal, air and noise pollution from vehicles and heat from buildings, which can melt permafrost
- Tourism occurs in the Arctic
- It increases shipping and air travel, leading to water and air pollution
- There is a risk of boats grounding, which can cause oil spills
- Tourists can disturb breeding colonies of birds and seals
- Trampling damages fragile vegetation and erodes the landscape, leaving paths
- Litter and waste disposal damages habitats and can harm wildlife, especially because decomposition rates in the cold environment are so slow
- Tourism raises awareness of environmental issues, perhaps leading to better management of the region
- Commercial fishing occurs in the Arctic
- Over-fishing threatens many species
- Reduced fish populations have a knock-on effect on other species in the food chain
- Other species can be affected by getting caught in fishing lines
- Whaling was a big industry in the Arctic during the last two centuries
- Many species of whales were hunted to near extinction
- Such as Blue, Fin and Minke whales
- Whales are very slow breeders, so it takes a long time for their populations to recover
- Whaling has mostly stopped but some countries, such as Japan, still hunt
- The Arctic has large gas and oil reserves, as well as other mineral deposits
- These include Prudhoe Bay in Alaska and the uranium and phosphate mines in Arctic Russia
- Drilling for gas and oil is risky as oil spills are difficult to clean up and can harm habitats and can kill wildlife
- Pipelines also must be built to transport the oil and gas, but these can melt the permafrost below and interrupt the migration routes of caribou herds
- The extraction of metals from mined rocks produced lots of pollution, damaging ecosystems in the surrounding area
Case Study: Small-Scale Sustainable Management, Arctic
- Sustainable tourism in the Arctic is a small-scale example of sustainable management
- Svalbard is a group of islands in the Arctic Circle, north of Norway that is promoting sustainable tourism
- Over 60% of Svalbard is protected
- There are strict limits in the use of off-road motorised vehicles, and tour operators and visitors must get permission to visit the nature reserves
- Different zones have different levels of protection
- There has recently been a ban on the most polluting fuels used by cruise ships so bigger ones are no longer able to visit
- Ny-Ålesund is the most northerly settlement on the world and is run by a company called Kings Bay AS
- The population is mostly made up of scientific researchers who, along with Kings Bay AS, have acted to limit the impact of tourism on the area
- Cruise ships are required to tell passengers about the rules visitors must follow such as not disturbing nesting birds or leaving litter
- Visitors must stick to the 1.5km path around the settlement and there are lots of boards with environmental information to make tourists aware of the issues
- The ships are only allowed to remain anchored for a few hours to reduce the amount of pollution entering the global environment
Case Study: Global Management, The Antarctic Treaty
- The Antarctic Treaty is a global example of sustainable management
- It was signed by 46 countries in 1961 when the environment in Antarctica was under threat
- In 1991, all member countries declared their commitment to maintaining and strengthening the treaty
- The environmental protocol which came to force in 1998 set out six basic principles for human activity
- No mineral exploitation
- Plant and animal conservation
- Areas of environmental protection
- Waste disposal rules and waste minimisation
- Discharge of sewage from vessels regulation
- Environmental Impact Assessment on activities before they go ahead
- There are strict rules about the introduction of non-native species so that ecosystems are not disturbed
- Visitors must wear disinfected over boots when they land
- There are restrictions on eating, drinking and urinating whilst on shore
- There are globally agreed rules amongst tour operators
- Only 100 visitors are allowed to land at one time
- Cruise ships of over 500 passengers are prevented from stopping
- There have been no major problems with the treaty
- Some people think it should be extended to cover the ocean surrounding Antarctica so that marine life is more protected
