Ground shaking and Displacement:
Locations close to epicentre, high magnitude and water content experience extreme ground
shaking- Kobe, Japan 1995. Buildings withstand vertical movements better than horizontal.
Surface displacement affects drainage, sewers, railways, natural rivers and streams.
Liquefaction:
Occurs in areas with high water content and fine surface material as the vibrations cause
the particles to behave like liquids → surface pooling of water
Landslides and avalanches:
Vulnerability is increased by monsoon rainfall and deforestation (Nepalese 2015). Sediment
blocks transport routes and can lead to river flooding.
Tsunamis:
Underwater earthquakes can cause the sea bed to rise vertically, producing powerful waves
with low height and long wavelength. Wave height increases and water at the front is pulled
back out to sea (drawdown)- Sumatra 2014. Shape of seabed and coastline affects local
tsunami height. Underwater landslides are caused by earthquakes and create tsunamis
which radiate outwards- Papa New Guinea, 1998.
Escarpments:
Mark fault locations of tension and compression. Altered by weathering and erosion on
continents/can disappear under accumulated sediment.
Rift Valleys:
A linear valley with steep parallel sides that have fallen due to parallel faults on a
constructive plate boundary. East African rift valley is a continental rift zone (or graben).
