• causes: poverty, low wages, hard/boring jobs, not enough jobs, poor amenities and
services in rural area. economic development in rural improves healthcare and
water supply which reduces death rate and increases population growth and
population pressure results in underemployment, increased poverty and move to
city for work. mechanisation of commercial faming, agricultural labourers lose jobs,
move to find job in city. cumulative causation, wages spent and develops a city,
attracts workers
• barriers: low as within country, less barriers smaller the distance. as transport
infrastructure improves and knowledge of urban life increases. easier if relative is in
destination already.
• Impacts on rural area: traditional view: men leave, old ill and women left behind,
greater inefficiency in farming and more poverty although remittances are sent
home. if man leaves, woman becomes head of house, increased social status in
community. woman has to do extra work as well as house work, children may have
to help and miss school, reducing their future prospects. remittances used to invest
in new farming techniques, subsistence to commercial. relay migration: family
members take it in turn to migrate to the city. family farm develops, they can buy
and sell improving the rural conditions. if rural area is affected by natural hazards
and family just leaves everything. beneficial in that marginal land is no longer being
overused and soil erosion reduced. short term: reduced standard of living and
quality of life for remainders. long term: reduced population pressure, economic
stimulus of remittances, change from subsistence to commercial results in better
standard of living.
• Impacts on cities: pressure on limited job opportunities, housing and services.
shortage of jobs means huge informal economy. shortage of housing so people live
in poor conditions. new arrivals often don’t pay taxes so money for improvements is
in short supply, so councils can’t help. most people feel better off in city and retain
higher expectations of future prospects.
Brazil rural-urban
• Causes: rural population growth. mechanisation of farming. natural hazards.
Industrialization. more interesting lifestyle. more opportunities and better jobs.
better amenities and services in urban areas. better transport. better information.
success feeds on itself.
• Impacts: greater in cities. extra workers = rapid industrial growth. increase in PD
and tax revenue. become an NIC with important automobile and aerospace
industries. workers paid low wages and housing can’t be afforded, growth of shanty
towns (favelas). built on land no-one else wants. overcrowded with no proper water
supply/ sewage disposal, disease spreads quickly and no electricity. not everyone
had job so informal economy improved, taxes weren’t paid, councils found it hard to raise funds. urban services struggled to cope with increased demand. severe
overcrowding with increased traffic congestion and air pollution.
• How can results be managed: TNC’s encouraged move in and set up factories. more
people then employed in formal economy (better pay and pay taxes). people with
job improve housing. council set up self-help scheme where they provide materials
for housing. council builds shell of house, rent to tenants who finish it. services
provided to existing favelas, they improved and became the periferia. public
transport improved so congestion and air pollution improved. rural areas improved
so less people wanted to move, eased pressure on cities.
Urban-urban migration
stepped migration: rural village local town regional city major city
less barriers as shorter distance. distance-decay is more people move shorter
distances. costs are lower and more knowledge. migrant becomes urbanised and
moves into next town with advice
Brazilian example: start with move from village in deprived rural ‘serrano’ of NE
brazil. common droughts in inland so strong push. local town near coast;
agricultural work in sugar cane and cotton. agricultural mechanisation is a push
factor to move to city (Recife or Salvador). work in informal/labour intensive
factory. low paid jobs so move to richer south-east core region of brazil. better paid
semi-skilled jobs available, e.g. fiat factory in Belo horizonte.
Urban-urban migration in Brazil: Rio de Janeiro to Barra da Tijuca
Barra is new edge city, 32km down the coast from Rio (short distance). Barra
developed in 1980’s. flat land so allows for future growth. Population is 130,000.
Push factors of Rio: built on narrow, congested site between mountains and sea
with housing packed in. congested roads and traffics jams at rush hour. noise/air
pollution created, and time wasted when travelling. street crime and graffiti. crime
and drugs common in favelas, spills into Rio. little space for leisure and
overcrowded beach. rich have a high standard of living, poor quality of life. those
that can afford, and commute have moved to Barra.
Pull factors of Barra: modern apartment complexes have gate guards so children
allowed to go out alone. coastal motorway keeps traffic following and allows
commuting to Rio. local shops are available and shopping malls for higher order
good with good quality and choice. public transport is cheap, clean and efficient.
city design is that individual areas are self-contained. lots of service industries and
office blocks (le monde = office block) work available for those that don’t want to
commute. hosted Rio 2016 Olympics. highest HDI (0.970): compare with middle
class of USA or Europe.
Urban-rural migration
movement from big cities to rural areas. also known as counter urbanisation.
important in most HIC’s. driven by rise of commuting, some move to countryside
but still work in city. dominant movement of people in HIC’s. people move within
the commuting range.
Push factors: pollution. crime and anti-social behaviour. traffic congestion.
Loneliness. racial tension
Pull factors: housing is cheaper with a low density. environment is cleaner. lower
crime rates. local schools achieve higher grades. good social interaction. leisure is
poor, but cities are close to compensate for this. good transport for commuting.
City impacts: only wealthy people can move out. poor can’t afford it, so city moves
into a downward social spiral. city council has less tax revenue so can’t deal with
problems. harder to sort out the run down and deprived areas
Rural towns impacts: populations in small towns near to big conurbations has
grown rapidly. business and services have grown, providing more jobs. commuters
feel quality of life has improved but locals feel town is too crowded and congested.
Rural villages impacts: village schools closing down. shops and services are rare.
transport services are used less, leading to closures. roads are more congested.
village community life has declined. agricultural building have been renovated and
turned into barn conversions. house prices have risen and hard for youths to find
somewhere to live.
Management of rural-urban: planners are concentrating development onto
brownfield sites close to the town centre rather than letting the town sprawl into
surrounding countryside. new jobs encouraged. housing associations have been
building.
Intra-urban migration
Small scale and occurs over short distances, within same urban area.
Causes: change in employment status which influences their affluence and
changes in family life cycle. different types of accommodation are found in
different parts of a city, cost and size of accommodation reflects the size and
nature of the migrant’s family and wealth at different stages of their life. depends
on social class and income of people involved.