Pollution of the land, air and water
Pollution: introduction of substances (or light/noise) into the natural environment
that cause adverse change and which damage the natural environment, introduced
naturally or by humans.
point source: occurs when pollutant is issued at one point. e.g. pipe pouring
untreated sewage into a river
non-point source: originates from an area. e.g. exhaust emissions from all vehicles
in a city.
incidental pollution: one off event. e.g. Chernobyl radiation leak
sustained pollution: long term caused by on-going human activities, impacts much
worse in long run. e.g. release of CO2 into atmosphere from burning fossil fuels
2014, WHO said air pollution kills 7m people a year and linked to 1 in 8 deaths
worldwide.
Pollution source of the land
mining and quarrying: waste tips from coalminers scar landscape. visually
unsightly. difficult to landscape and vegetation doesn’t grow. quarries/strip mines
produce dust/noise when operating and lead to severe degradation (especially in
fragile rainforests).
industry: produce solid waste that’s dumped or toxic by-products drained away into
land. makes land reclamation expensive when factory closes and site used for
something else.
energy production: leaks from oil pipelines contaminate land over which pipelines
pass. coal-fired power stations dump ash in large holes in ground, ash is loose and
sterile.
dumping of domestic waste: waste is burned and ashes/waste can’t be burned is
dumped. unsightly but small scale. more affluent people throw more away. waste
collection organised by authorities and waste buried outside urban area in landfill,
organic food waste breaks down and produces methane that escapes and
contributes to pollution. rain picks up toxic chemicals and down to groundwater
aquifers, causing water pollution.
Air pollution causes
energy production: burning fuelwood in home, dust from strip mining of coal, acid
rain and carbon dioxide from fossil fuels.
agriculture: strong and spreading manure causes bad smell affecting settlements.
burning straw after grain harvest produces smoke and soot.
deforestation: cut down and burn trees. ash helps fertilise soil. large scale can
cause many problems. burning rainforest in south east Asia led to serious air
pollution across whole region. 1997 south east Asian haze disaster caused smog
and health problems, cost of $9billion as schools closed, increased healthcare need
and travel disruptions.
industry: atmospheric pollutants. iron and steel, chemicals and petro-chemicals are
worst as factories operate for long periods of time and produce sustained pollution.
union carbide explosion chemical factory in Bhopal India 1984 released methyl
isocyanate gas into city, people blinded and choked by gas, 20,000 died and many
disabled.
traffic: many vehicles so increasing exhaust fumes. congestions produce fumes.
worst in MICs where vehicles poorly maintained. carbon monoxide (CO); vehicle
exhaust fumes that aren’t burning fuel efficiently. reduced supply of O2 to heart.
carbon dioxide; exhaust fumes from efficient vehicle engines. global warming.
nitrogen oxide (NOx); petrol engine exhausts with no catalytic converter. irritates
throat/lungs, leads to ozone formation and acid rain. ground-level ozone (O3);
chemicals in vehicle exhausts, especially nitrogen oxides, react with sunlight to
produce ground level ozone. photochemical smog (brown haze) irritates eyes nose
throat and lungs, dangerous for people with existing respiratory problems.
Particulates; produced by diesel engine exhausts with no filter. black smoke and
soot leads to smog and respiratory problems, particles cause cancer if breathed in
over long period. hydrocarbons (benezene); petrol engine exhausts with no
catalytic converter. ground-level ozone formation, cancer. Lead; old petrol vehicles
during leaded petrol (problem in MICs). brain damage, especially in children,
damages kidney liver and nervous system.
Water pollution sources
north pacific garbage patch: water fluid so spreads. polluted rivers take to sea and
currents spread. plastic dumped in north Pacific Ocean and washed in from rivers,
long lived material and floats. currents move in circular fashion so concentrated.
unknown long-term impact on marine ecosystem but a major pollution form.
agriculture: increased chemical use in farming. washed down through soil
(leaching) to rivers/streams. increase in nitrates leads to algae growth, when it
dies, rots and used all oxygen in water and killing organisms.
industry: liquid wastes dumped into sea or rivers. paper making is worst. chemicals
to turn wood into wood pulp are extremely toxic and kill wildlife if released without
being treated and made safe. rivers can also be polluted with oregano-chlorine
compounds, used to bleach wood pulp.
energy production and transport: main impacts are pollution from oil spills, air
pollution from energy production contributed to acid rain that pollutes lakes and
rivers. clean hot water from thermal power stations dumped into river but has low
levels of oxygen so suffocates fish. low level radioactive waste from nuclear power
production.
domestic rubbish: dumped into near rivers. old bikes and trolleys common in HICs
but problem worse in MICs/NICs where no rubbish collection.
Solutions
have to be sustainable. use fewer resources, make things cleaner and throw away
less. many people divorced from production chain that provides with what they buy
and ignorant to what happens to waste.
need to raise awareness. environmental pressure groups (Greenpeace and friends
of earth) educate people and change attitudes/behaviour. worked in HICs where
people can afford to make informed choices, poor more focused on survival.
awareness into political action. more common in HICs. governments in MICs focus
of needs of rapidly expanding population and policies stimulating economic
development instead.
legislation: passing laws which outlaw pollution. set up monitoring and inspection
system highlighting continuing pollution incidents. ensure culprits are punished.
education: advertising in media. persuading people pollution is bad. showing what
they can do to reduce.
taxation: hardest way as people resent taxes and green taxes seen unnecessary.
vehicle fuel tax aim to reduce vehicle use. plastic bag taxes to reduce domestic
waste. landfill tax made local councils organise recycling to cut down on amount
being thrown.
Link between pollution and economic development
large scale pollution not a major problem in pre-industrial societies in LICs…
agriculture is organised on a subsistence basis and little money to buy chemical
fertilisers/pesticides which are main agents of agricultural pollution. land over use
leads to degradation.
industry poorly developed, small scale and craft that produces few pollutants.
mining and quarrying source of land degradation/pollution in countries where raw
materials are extracted.
transport based on muscle power of people/animals. fossil fuel powered vehicle use
not big.
little domestic rubbish in poor societies where people can’t afford to throw away
anything that might be useful.
low energy use. fuelwood as domestic fuel leads to pollution within house with no
proper ventilation.
industrial societies (MICs and NICs) land, air and water pollution all rise rapidly with
economic development…
industrialisation leads to factories producing range of pollutants. growth of heavy
industries (steelmaking/chemicals) high pollution levels.
transport more vehicle based. need to provide cheap cars/lorries that are poor
quality with inefficient engines and inadequate exhaust systems. mopeds with 2
stroke engines are popular but dirty as burn mix of oil and petrol.
urbanisation means cities grow rapidly. inadequate sewage disposal (local rivers
and lakes). people burn cheap dirty fuels (coal).
agriculture becomes more commercial, use of agricultural chemicals increases,
polluting rivers and streams.
government promotes economic development so basic needs of growing
population are met. encourage TNCs set up factories, attracted to absence of antipollution laws.
increased pollution leads to environmental degradation and major health problems
post-industrial economies (HICs) pollution decreases…
QoL as important as SoL and pressure from population for reduction in pollution
environmental pressure groups set up and mobile public opinion. green political
parties set up and take part in political process.
affluent democracies where wishes are considered and regard TNC demands less.
anti-pollution laws enforced, improve public health and protect wildlife and
ecosystems
globalisation means polluting industry closed as production moved to emerging
economies with lower wage rates.
increase private car use means transport pollution is still a problem. particulate
filters and catalytic converters means pollution is being reduced
HICs have reduced pollution locally but still a problem globally. increased energy
use based on fossil fuels means CO2 produced in large quantities by HICs. CO2 has
little impact locally but globally through climate change is immense.
Water — demand, supply and quality
essential natural resource. reliable supply is essential for sustained economic
development. 40% of population live where lack of water is constant threat and
global demand is doubling every 20 years. even when available, can be polluted
and unfit to drink. lack of access will kill 4000 children a day in LICs from
waterborne diseases.
desalination: producing fresh water from seawater
surface water: obtained from rivers and lakes. stored in a reservoir by building a
dam across a river.
groundwater: underground layers of porous rock that contain water are called
aquifers. wells and boreholes used to access aquifer and pumps used to raise
water to surface.
Water demand
main uses…
agriculture: low rainfall in some parts of world, farmers need to irrigate fields so
crops can grow
industrial: use huge amounts of water for manufacturing
domestic: HICs use large amounts of water each day for drinking washing flushing
toilets etc. LICs use less, mainly for drinking.
drinking water purified at water treatment then piped to where it’s needed. dirty
water cleaned at sewage treatment works before put back in river. big rivers, water
may be used several times before reaches sea.
shortages can occur anywhere. renewable resource but when use exceeds supply,
long term shortages can result. impacts people and economic development.
competition for use of available water resources and has to be managed.
water surplus and water deficit: surplus is more water, deficit is not enough.
transferred from surplus to deficit, over long distances. dams and reservoirs built
and river levels controlled. use must be sustainable. too much used, river levels fall
(pollution more concentrated and wildlife suffers) and wetland areas dry out,
effects wildlife as habitats destroyed.
water quality: domestic use, drinking water needs to be clean and disease free.
water treatment as natural water rarely clean to drink. building treatment works
and pipes to deliver clean water to homes is seen as a government/agencies job.
infrastructure is cheap and most countries can ensure clean water delivery after
they start to develop economically. still a significant proportion of global population
that can’t rely on clean water.
factors determining if surplus or deficit…
temperatures and amount of evaporation: higher temps, greater amount of rainfall
will evaporate before used. losses to evaporation high as 90%.
importance of agriculture: irrigation is practised over large areas, common for
agriculture to be biggest water user
economic development level: industrialised countries, large water amounts used by
factories or cooling water in thermal or nuclear power stations
population density: big urban areas use large water amounts, especially in HICs,
often for domestic use
presence of water bearing rocks: even in deserts, aquifer presence below surface
can provide adequate water supplies
proximity of rivers: some areas use rivers fed by rainfall 1000’s of km away. Nile
river away in Egypt fed by rainfall in Ethiopian highlands.
amount of precipitation: area has less than 500mm of rain a year, chance of deficit
especially if surface water is main source
Degradation of rural settlements
what can be done to reduce rural environmental degradation…
overpopulation: education on reducing birth rate. make rural-urban easier. green
revolution techniques to increase food production.
poor farming methods: encourage NGOs and governments to discuss possible
improved farming methods with local farmers. combine local expertise with latest
developments in farming science.
deforestation: set up conservation areas in areas of virgin forest. ban commercial
logging unless its sustainable. encourage use of clay ovens to reduce firewood
demand.
constraints making reduction of rural environment degradation difficult…
ignorance: many famers don’t realise what the destructive long-term
consequences of their farming methods are and don’t know what changes to make.
tradition dictates that change is resisted.
lack of choice: poverty gives little choice. need food for families and no money to
invest in newer practices. continue with tradition knowing it causes long term
problems
profit motive: big companies that organise destruction of virgin forestlands to
make quick money. put short term above long-term sustainable production. in
traditional farming areas, landlords insist on high rents, keeping tenants poor and
preventing improvements.
lack of control: governments pass laws to reduce degradation but hard to enforce
in remote rural areas where illegal loggers can do it without authorities realising.
corruption means officials turn a blind eye.
continuing population pressure: more people need more food and fuel. leads to
overuse of soil and deforestation. stage 2 of DTM suffer from this problem and
have a long way to go before population declines
poverty: poor subsistence farmers have nothing to sell so no money and no way of
improving methods.
Degradation of urban environments
cities are open dynamic systems so subject to change, responding to economic,
environmental and social factors affecting them. cities provide range of functions
relating to their economic and social purpose. needs change, functions have to
adapt. leads to decline and expansion in some areas. regeneration is attempt to
improve declining areas.
traditionally cities grown out with new development at edge. inner areas of HIC
cities defined as grown older. in older and industrial and residential areas where
developers are reluctant to spend money to regenerate run down areas.
Factors causing degradation of urban environment in MIC cities
urbanisation: city growth rapid in most MICs and NICs over last 50 years as result
of rural-urban migration. speed means unplanned developments and haphazard
(especially shanty towns on the edge). made of whatever, visual pollution, no
electricity so wood/coal for fuel, air pollution.
industrial development: move to city for job. jobs provided by new factories.
contribute to economic growth and attract TNCs as environment laws aren’t strict.
air and water pollution is a problem, degrading the environment.
inadequate waste management: rapid population growth, waste disposal systems
struggled to keep up with growth. as shanty towns are built by those who live
there, no proper sewage disposal system/rubbish collection and area gets polluted,
dirty and unhygienic. built on marshy floodplain areas, gets into river and pollutes.
What can be done to combat environmental degradation in MIC and NIC
cities?
constraint of lack of money. economic development proceeds, more money
available and environment improved.
city administrations have started self-help schemes where they provide locals with
materials to improve built environment themselves.
city administrations have installed clean water supplies, electricity and sanitation
infrastructure in some shanty town areas or new areas where shanty town dwellers
encouraged to move.
improve public transport, city administrations can reduce congestion and air
pollution.
Factors causing degradation of urban environment in HIC cities
ageing and derelict buildings: rapid growth with industrialisation, cities grow
outwards over time and buildings in centre get older over time (in the inner-city
zone). structure will crumble and walls crack and flake and roof leaks. home to
poorest people so landlords don’t have much financial incentive to fix. housing gets
unfit for habitation, abandoned and derelict. developers reluctant to re-generate.
inadequate infrastructure: doughnut effect is movement of urban activities from
central areas of city to edge where new ring roads provide good accessibility.
shops offices and other functions have migrated to the edge. transport
infrastructure becoming inadequate in the centre. traffic increased so more
congestion, traffic jams and air pollution as a result. easier and cheaper to build
new roads on edge of town and new developments followed. property developers
not interested in spending money revitalising derelict and congested inner city
areas where urban environment was in a downward spiral.
deindustrialisation: processes of globalisation caused manufacturing jobs to move
from HICs to MICs/NICs, factories in HIC cities closed. old factories in inner-city
most at risk and closure led to dereliction and unemployment, more degradation.
social segregation: richer people moved out of old inner-city zones into modern
suburbs on urban fridge or new housing areas in rural areas around city. only the
poor in inner city. no money to improve homes and paid little tax so local
authorities had no funding to make improvement. degradation continued.
waste management: people get richer, produce more rubbish. collected by council
and buried in landfill sites on edge of city. sites were smelly and unsightly and
degraded area around. trucks carrying waste contributed to air pollution and
congestion. landfill sites leached chemicals into groundwater, potentially polluting
water supply.
What can be done to combat environmental degradation in HIC cities
constraint of lack of money: local authority renovation schemes failed as built
cheap and soon degenerated. private sector needs to be involved but only involved
if a profit made
cooperation between government and private sector: London docklands
development in 1980s. government relaxed planning laws and ignored wishes of
locals. acquired land, cleared it and put in new infrastructure. encourage private
investors to build high profit buildings.
sustainable communities: carbon neutral small-scale urban developments
encouraged at start of 21st century. environmental and economically sustainability
by providing jobs and socially sustainable by ensuring locals have adequate
educational provision and decent healthcare. aim to tackle multiple deprivation
and social exclusion.
improved waste management: result of agenda 21 initiative, authorities introduced
recycling and composting schemes to cut down domestic waste amounts. waste
that can’t be recycled or composted is burnt in waste to energy incinerators,
producing electricity.
Case study: urban decline and regeneration: London docklands
east London. docks were once part of the port of London. surrounding areas were
cheap residential areas, housing the dockers and workers. 1960s, containerisation
and increasing ship size led to decline of docks and industries — trade moved
downstream to deep-water harbours such as tilbury. 1980, all London docks were
closed, 8miles of derelict land left.
Regeneration was needed as when they closed, 12000 jobs lost and couldn’t
transfer skills to other jobs. unemployment led to poverty and social problems.
large areas of derelict buildings requiring complete redevelopment. infrastructure
of area was poor with inadequate transport links to rest of London.
land owned by many different groups. piecemeal investment in multiple of small
areas didn’t seem attractive. lack of housing meant builders had no idea what
return would be and didn’t want to take risk of investing. poor infrastructure meant
private companies deterred from investing, projects were responsibility of
government.
1981, UK gov started the LDDC to redevelop. acquired land for development by
agreement or compulsory purchase. funds and power to create new infrastructure
and foster development of public services. 1982, designated enterprise zone where
businesses exempt from property taxes, simplified planning regulations and capital
grants. private investment was attractive.
unemployment reduced by combination of training projects, transport
improvements and jobs. cost £3.9b of public money. private sector investment was
£8.7b by 1998 and still continues. canary wharf is a financial and banking area.
80000 new jobs, 24000 new housing units. docklands light railway, London city
airport and 144km of new roads. 25m square ft of industrial/commercial floorspace
built. 1884 acres of derelict land reclaimed. 5 new health centres and 25 new
schools/colleges. canary wharf seen as a symbol of Britain’s wealth and prestige.
criticisms of expensive housing units and original inhabitants couldn’t afford so felt
pushed aside. older dockers weren’t able to benefit from retraining and remained
unemployed and poor.
Protection of environments at risk
first recognise they’re at risk. factors leading to environmental degradation need to
be recognised, strategies devised. need to consider economic environmental and
social factors.
needs: what is current situation and what needs to be done to protect environment
or prevent further degradation or return to previous state. what are long term aims
of plan.
measures: what are different policies and strategies adopted to achieve aims. each
way forward needs to be evaluated with costs and impacts, shouldn’t destroy
livelihoods.
outcomes: level of success of chosen strategies must be evaluated at each stage of
implementation. strategies should be modified if failing to produce desired effects
or cope with unforeseen circumstances.
most schemes involve conservation = preservation, management and
enhancement of environment.
set up national park in rural areas or large conservation area with laws to protect
and enhance. minimal human impact and maintain wilderness while allowing
visitors (USA). protect wildlife and natural environment or tradition of hunting,
herding and farming leading to conflicts between park rangers and local
population, over poaching elephant ivory (Kenya). UK, scenic rural areas with
established farming, not to return area but preserve and enhance environment,
aims of conservation and recreation.
towns and cities, conservation is more small scale, tackling locality problems in
urban area.
UK urban ecological conservation areas set up to encourage existing wildlife back
into urban area, maintain bio-diversity and reintroduce locally extinct species,
provide green spaces for urban people to use for relaxation and recreation and
make cheap use of derelict land that would be more expensive to set up as a park
or public gardens.
work done includes: planting trees and other native species, setting up nest boxes
and bat boxes, dredging and extending ponds, returning urban floodplains back to
natural wetland state
organisations behind this work: towns and city councils, local community groups,
natural England and environment agency — government funded environmental
organisations, national trust and other private charity organisation including
national urban forestry unit
different stakeholders have different priorities: local councils have planning needs
and must balance desire to make use of derelict land with cost to local tax payers,
conservation groups are mostly concerned with protecting plants/animals and
enhancing environment, locals are interested in leisure like dog walks fishing and
playing sport
when decided to set up an ecological conservation, lots needs to be done. land
ownership needs to be determined and resolved. management plan devised and
costs. needs and desires of user groups and stakeholder considered and
reconciled. funding obtained.