UN world tourism organisation (UNWTO) is responsible for promotion of responsible,
sustainable and universally accessible tourism. membership includes 156 countries.
Responsibilities…
promoting tourism as a driver of economic growth
ensuring environmental sustainability
encouraging implementation of the global code of ethics for tourism to minimise
the possible negative effects of tourism
promoting tourism as an instrument in achieving the UN millennium development
goals (MDGs), including reducing poverty and fostering sustainable development
Reasons for and trends in growth of tourism
growth has been dramatic, in 1950 only 25m international tourist arrivals. biggest
provider of outbound tourist arrivals. biggest provider of outbound tourists was
china and biggest receiver of inbound tourists was France. tourism grows in most
regions part from north Africa and middle east areas affected by conflict. slump in
the global recession in 2008 and USA travel fell after 9/11.
earnings by destinations (US$1159 billion) + earnings by international passenger
transport (US$218 billion) = total export earnings (US$1.4 trillion)
international tourism accounts for 29% of worlds exports of services and 6% of
overall exports of goods and services. tourism ranks 5th after fuels, chemicals,
food and automotive products while ranking first in many developing countries.
Reasons for growth in international tourism
growing affluence means people have more money for holidays, e.g. growing
economies like china
people have longer holidays and more leisure time. custom for people in HICs to
retire earlier. also, better health. affluent pensioners are a significant tourist sector
(grey sector)
cost of air travel has reduced with advent of budget airlines and more fuel-efficient
aircraft. this has opened new flight destinations. charter flights have become
significant part of mass tourism and have become a part of package holidays
internet allows people to research and book wide range of holidays
countries have more efficient tourist boards and well-developed marketing
strategies
built attractions (Disneyland) have been developed
TNCs have become involved in the industry. e.g. Tui, world’s largest tourism firms
and Europe’s largest tour operator. industrial interests until mid 90’s when it
moved into tourism, purchased a few major travel and transportation firms.2014
German company fully merged with its 55% owned UK subsidiary TUI travel, create
united group with value of US$ 9.7b. brand names; TUI, Thomson, first choice,
Arke, jet air and Fritidsresor. company saves 20m customers a year with 1800
retail travel shops, 79 tour operators in 18 countries, 12 hotel brands in 28
countries and 138 aircraft and 10 cruise lines. shirt sponsor of German Bundesliga
football club Hannover 96 and spurs for three seasons.
Environment impact of tourism on tourist destinations
pollution. visual pollution; building of high-rise developments on Spanish Costas in
60s-80s. some resorts have noise problems associated with late night
entertainment or increased road traffic. litter is an issue and money often spent
cleaning streets and beaches in morning.
air pollution increases with road traffic volume but more significant aspect is
carbon footprint of air travel associated with international tourism. holiday flights in one year from UK to Cyprus emitted 700,000 tonnes of CO2, more than double
amount the tourist produced during the stay.
areas where resorts could reduce carbon footprint: anaerobic digestion of waste
with methane recovery, optimisation of use of bottled water, further
encouragement of use of local food produce
tourism can exceed the carrying capacity of the area (no of tourists can exceed the
number that the local area can cope with)
concept can apply to: services; resorts with low rain, mass tourism places demand
on water supply. e.g. Canary Islands and Las Vegas. areas where uncontrolled
development has gone ahead, sewerage systems and power supplies have been
unable to cope. tourists in high class hotels will consume disproportionally more of
these resources than locals. roads become choked with traffic. physical
environment; aspects such as footpath erosion and adverse effects on flora and
fauna. local people’s perceptions of how many tourists are acceptable.
sometimes development of tourism has allowed investment to improve
environment. south Africa, led to protection of wild animals from poaching and
development of national parks, reserves and vet services.
Impact on society in tourist destination
main effect claims to be the distortion of culture. adoption of western dress, moral
values and English language. some think the performances of traditional culture
(costume or dancing) for tourists can be demeaning. same is said for nature of
some hospitality employment (cleaning or waitressing)
where locals don’t accept hospitality culture, they develop resentment towards
tourists. occurs in some LICs as of disparity in wealth between tourists and locals or
in some HIC tourist areas where locals have disrespectful names for tourists.
various categories of behaviour tourists may find offensive by locals. women
uncovering their heads in certain Muslim countries. people wearing revealing
bathing costumes on beaches. drunks, druggies and their behaviour has plagued
certain tourist resorts on Mediterranean.
crime rates grow with tourism rates. by tourists associated with alcohol and drugs
or robbery by locals as of the wealth disparity between tourists and locals. leads to
prostitution.
tourism can increase facilities available for locals and help develop language skills.
Impact on economy
some island states a very high % of GDP from tourism, Palau (72%), Aruba (43%),
Seychelles, Cayman Islands, Barbados, Mauritius, Bahamas, Malta, Lebanon,
Croatia, Cambodia and Jordan. can lead to a regional multiplier effect. profits for
business leads to increased income from taxes, reinvestment in infrastructure and
economic take off. jobs provided and new skills developed. may involve a culture
change so people see benefits of entrepreneurship and hospitality.
with TNCs profits may go abroad and tax loses happen. another economic leakage
can be employment of foreign staff who send home remittances.
employment can be season so workers laid off in off season. Mediterranean beach
resorts or alpine resorts with two peaks, winter for skiing and summer for
mountaineering and touring holidays.
tourism can drive up cost of everyday goods, hard for low paid hospitality workers.
low pay and poor service conditions are issues. hotel workers with early mornings
and late evening shifts is hard for parents.
where countries become over-dependent on tourism, they may be adversely
affected by falls in demand due to: terrorism; attacks or fear has reduced demand.
London in July 2005. natural disasters; earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and floods.
Indonesian tsunami 2004. health scares; SARS breakout in china 2003. exchange
rate fluctuations; high value of US dollar to euro makes EU cheaper destination for
US tourists in 2015 summer. political instability; Egypt 2014. changes in fashion;
traditional locations may define as others become more fashionable. UK seaside
resorts declined in 70’s. cruises grew after millennium.
life cycle model of tourism
1980, butler proposed a tourism area life cycle model showing how a tourist
area/destination may evolve over time. involved six stages with a variable 6th
stage.
either rejuvenation, stabilisation, decline or disaster
exploration: destination begins as unknown and visitors come in small numbers
restricted by lack of access, facilities and local knowledge
involvement: word spreads. tourists accepted by locals involved in industry and
amenities are increases/improved. e.g. Kazakhstan reaching this
development: tourist arrivals arrive rapidly. tourism becomes a major industry.
TNCs/firms from HICs become involved and take control. package tours are
developed.
consolidation: tourism well established. some facilities (beaches) may be reserved
for tourists. resentment develops among locals as of factors such as congestion.
growth rate decreases.
stagnation: carrying capacity is reached which involves social and environmental
limits. fewer new tourists arrive. strong local awareness about problems of tourism
final phase…
rejuvenation: possible where modernisation resorts/infrastructure improvements
lead to increased carrying capacity and numbers grow again
stabilisation: development of new activities, niche markets or type of tourism could
lead to this
increased congestion and unsustainable development may mean that the features
that originally drew visitors to the destination no long exist and decline occurs
international firms may pull out, leaving the area without resources to improve
amenities
law of diminishing returns may be involved where increased capital inputs don’t
produce a proportional increase in outputs in terms of visitor numbers or profits
natural disaster or factors such as terrorism could lead to a collapse of visitor
numbers
Blackpool, UK
exploration: sea bathing became fashionable among the wealthy social classes and
first visitors arrive
involvement: railway to Blackpool built in 1846, allowing some weekend visitors. in
70s, workers given their first annual holidays. one of blackpools first facilities
(central pier) built in 1868.
development and consolidation: from 1900-50 from 4m to 17m visitors. was main
annual holiday destination for industrial workers of north England and Scotland.
wakes week developed where each town in Lancashire and Yorkshire took the
holiday on a different week in summer. 1907, workers guaranteed 12 days annual
paid holiday.
stagnation and decline: 1960 onwards visitor numbers decline. beaches became
empty because of the advent of cheap package holidays to better climate of
Mediterranean resorts. Blackpool has many rundown areas, derelict buildings and
social problems such as unemployment, drug and alcohol abuse and crime.
developed a reputation for rowdy stag and hen parties. numbers slumped to 11m
in 2000 and stayed a shorter time.
final phase: Blackpool trying to rejuvenate. increased investment in the
illuminations that extends tourist season into autumn. still has conference or
political parties facilities. grand theatre hosts a wide variety of productions.
promotes events/festivals (Blackpool dance festival and punk rock rebellion
festival). gay capital of the north.
investigated into casino resort like Las Vegas or Atlantic city. attempt failed. raising
capital is hard. some facilities sold to developers, e.g. tower is run by same people
as London eye which has allowed a programme of repairs costing £10m. life cycle
is mirrored by population statistics.
Spanish Costas
2013, Spain had worlds 3rd largest number of international tourists, 60.7m with
45.9m inhabitants. tourist attractions in many regions but mainly coast resort on
the costa Brava, costa Blanca, costa del sol and Mallorca.
exploration and involvement: 1960s, economy based on fishing and farming with
few tourists. accommodation very limited. roads poor and electricity sewerage and
water supplies not developed. beaches and villages quiet and unspoiled.
development: 70s and 80s, rapid expansion in tourism. largely uncontrolled
development of high-rise concrete hotel and apartment blocks. bars and
restaurants developed. employment expansion in construction hospitality and
catering. flora and fauna damaged and seas less clean.
consolidation: 1990, carrying capacity reached and amenities fully stretched.
building continued with more upmarket hotels, marinas, golf courses and villas.
noise pollution and crime increased. many areas became linear developments as
growth points of Torremolinos, Marbella, Fuengirola and Malaga. developments
included hotels villas 2nd homes retirement homes and golf courses.
stagnation: 2009 no of visitors dropped 8.7% due to financial crisis. 52.5m and rose
to 60.7m in 2013. unemployment rose in tourist areas and property price
collapsed, leaving many developments incomplete. older hotels started to look
shabby.
final phase: Costas tourism grew with emphasis being on more upmarket
developments and attracting more affluent visitors. attempts to clean beaches in
response to EU blue flag rules.
Ecotourism
growth arisen out of concerns about effects of mass tourism on environment and
communities. grown rapidly since 1980 and media coverage made people more
confident about visiting remote, exotic locations with people from many different
countries. not always easy to separate ecotourism from other tourism types.
Features: green tourism, aims to preserve environment by managing it sustainably.
some ecotourism related to ecology such as game parks nature reserves and coral
reefs. aims to educate people about these features and their conservation.
minimum effect on local communities. usually in remote areas with low tourist
densities. may be controlled by people in local areas. development planned to fit in
with local environment and there’s a balance between development and
conservation
its environmentally friendly but people take long haul flights to reach destination,
environmental impact on carbon footprint and noise at take-off and landing. can
cause conflict between conservation and making a profit.
e.g. south Africa’s Kruger national park. size of a small country and is carefully
controlled for wildlife conservation and has accommodation lodges which operate
on sustainable systems. area first came under protection if government in 1898
and development did involve expulsion of some local communities. 2002, linked
with gonarezhou national park in Zimbabwe and Limpopo national park in
Mozambique to form great Limpopo trans frontier park.
Sports tourism
people prepared to travel far to attend.
provides income for airlines and hospitality industry.
2012 Olympics generated £10bn for economy and tourists spent £2.1b.
investment in facilities, infrastructure, housing and landscaping can trigger urban
regeneration.
Stratford was redeveloped through creation of the site.
2002 commonwealth games had similar effect on regeneration rundown east lands
area of Manchester.
Adventure tourism
is about connecting with a new culture or a new landscape and being physically
active at the same time
Greenland is the world’s largest island but its population is less than 60,000
people, 80% of country is covered in ice, is second only to Antarctica for the sheer
amount of ice of the world. can do dog sledding, look at ice, hiking, polar plunge,
kayaking, whale watching, glacier walking.
rapidly growing industry and is helping to raise awareness of sustainability, need to
support locals and promote CSR. 42% of all tourists participate in one or a range of
adventure activities. 70-80% of revenue goes to locals. more women than men.
Niche market tourism
specialist tourism for specific interest groups is growing.
e.g. ramblers world-wide travel, track and field tours and Gulliver’s sports travel.
Case study: the management of a tourist destination: English lake district,
UK
in Cumbria in north west England. attracts 16m visitors a year, many international.
would be larger figure if whole of Cumbria counted. figures prominently on
international package tours of UK.
1949, national parks and access to countryside act established national parks.
protects UK natural beauty and ensure people can enjoy. not in enclosed areas and
normal economic activities go on within. national park planning authority within
each one that has additional responsibilities and powers.
largest of UK parks, 2000km2. tourists go to admire scenery of mountains and lakes.
for hill walking, rock climbing, mountain biking, fishing, boating, seeing historical
buildings and vernacular architecture, visiting famous writers locations (Beatrix
potter).
national trust owns 1/4 of land in park, water and electricity company united
utilities owns 8% and lake district authority owns 3.9%, based in Kendal offices.
visitor centre at blockhole near Windermere. no movement restriction inside park
but access to cultivated land usually restricted. much of park is uncultivated
upland with statutory open access.
Growth
1750-1800, beauty was appreciated. coincided with age of romanticism
(movement that emphasised aesthetic experience) and picturesque (aesthetic
ideal which encouraged travellers to examine country’s beauty). popularised by
lake poets words worth, coleridge and southey and art patron and social thinker,
john Ruskin. was the preserve of the rich, leisured classes. poets also popularised
walking as a pursuit.
rock climbing developed and wasdale head became a home of the sport.
100km south, Manchester and Lancashire were at heart of industrial revolution and
related development of the factory system and urbanisation. wealthy industrialists
started to buy land and build mansions (e.g. shore of lake Windermere)
Development
natural and historic landscape is principal attraction, constant tension between
conservation and economic development.
growth as a tourist destination has been through a series of separate
developments. lake district national park authority (1951) is the planning body for
the area and has to approve any developments.
national trust, UK charity, concerned with preservation of natural beauty areas,
historic buildings and monuments for public benefit. founded in 1895 with a lake
district resident (Hardwicke rawnsley). owns or leases most of central mountain
area and major valley heads, 91 farms and 24 lakes and tarns. raised funds
through national campaigns (e.g. purchase of brandelhow on Derwent water in
1902), donations (e.g. great gable mountain presented by fell and rock-climbing
club in 1923 as memorial to members killed in WW1) and subscription of members.
national trust also owns holiday accommodation and car parks.
other industry developers are private landowners and property owners, from
smallest guesthouse keeper to large landowners (e.g. Lowther estates which owns
farms, forestry, castle, gardens, luxury holiday cottages and is largest outdoor
event venue) 2014, blencathra mountain put up for sale by Lonsdale estate at
price of £1.75m to help settle a £9m tax bill.
some small tourist honeypots have developed, where tourist shops and food shops
dominate, crowded roads and pavements result. Bowness on Windermere with
cruise boats on lake, old laundry theatre and world of Beatrix potter.
conserving traditional built environment has been a concern for the lake district
national park authority, be it the former homes of famous residents, vernacular
architecture of white washed slate roofed cottages, dry stone walls and bridges.
LNDPA requires all new buildings and repairs are in local stone (adding cost).
rheged near penrith is a visitor centre situated in Britain’s largest grass covered
building. houses a 6-storey high cinema green, shops restaurants conference
centre play areas and entertainment events. outside park is centreparcs whinfell
forest resort.
climate is wet and unpredictable with central areas receiving 2000mm of rain a
year. limited range of wet weather, all year tourist attractions. winter season much
quieter than summer, winter weekends are still busy with day visitors and people
on short breaks. tourists are mainly over the age of 45.
Benefits to local community
tourism has a great and growing economic impact.
direct income for businesses and provides main source of employment.
helps maintain essential services such as schools and hospitals.
services based on tourist industry such as leisure facilities, restaurants and public
transport also benefit locals.
Sustainability
tourist numbers growing, 4.7% increase from 2013-14.
district will eventually reach its carrying capacity and if more people attracted it
will detract from peace people seek.
some mountain paths can be busy at peak periods.
Conflicts
housing: locals (young) find it hard to access market. 17% of homes are 2nd
homes. prices increase due to national price increase, people seeking desirable
retirement area and demand for 2nd homes. school leavers leave area as low
wages can’t afford which causes a rural depopulation
employment: some is seasonal, working conditions like split shifts are unattractive
and low wages. many young Australian backpackers employed in 1990 but now
replaced by eastern Europeans. local shops are barely profitable will close to make
way for more profitable gift shops and tea rooms. leaves locals without essential
services.
conflicts over resource use: history of mining/quarrying, old workings and spoil
heaps can be visual pollution. copper, lead, zinc, graphite, barytes and tungsten all
been mined. slate quarrying still active. industries established long time ago,
limited planning permission for continuation given with minimal visual impact and
road traffic. aggregate industries have a large loadstone quarry near Millom. quarry
is outside park. after WW2, forestry commission established extensive forest areas
(Ennerdale). regimented rows of dark green, non-native Sitka spruce heavy
criticised, visual appearance. planting less regimented now and includes native
species. area of hill sheep farming, supported financially by various agricultural policies. farmers conflict with tourists dogs chasing sheep, leaving gates open and
damaging walls. complaints about farmers blocking footpath access. narrow roads,
lined with stone walls and not well suited to coaches or heavy traffic. considered as
part of landscape and wider roads won’t be given planning permission. roads can
become heavily congested with traffic at peak periods. some valleys, hard to find
parking space in summer. number of hikers on mountains has led to footpath
erosion which is expensive to repair.
Solutions
proposals to restrict car numbers and visitors in some valleys has never happened
national trust and other groups have undertaken footpath maintenance and
rebuilding
bus transport improved and subsided. Borrowdale and Langdale have regular
services, number of private cars is an issue
restricted parking zones set up in some villages (elterwater). carparks established
by national trust and LDNPA.
posters and leaflets at tourist information centres raise awareness of conservation
issues
areas of forestry now used as assets with laid out trails and adventure sport
activities (grizedale forest)
farming and tourism relationship better. sheep farming preserves existing
landscape by preventing regeneration of native woodland and requiring dry stone
walls to be maintained. national trust owns 91 farms, many farmers diversified into
b&b accommodation and camping sites
National park today
LDNPA targets for 2015, refer to…
% of new businesses surviving for 3 years
% of people who are unemployed
median earnings of employees in Cumbria
% of planning application in national park receiving approval
amount of additional employment floor space developed in national park
% of visitors rating overall experience of their visit as good or very good
% of repeat visitors
% of visitors who stay in national park for at least 5 nights
% of visitors whose main mode of transport is private motor vehicle
% of accommodation providers in national park that have quality rating
no of parishes in national park which are covered by community action plans
no of settlements in national park with 4-6 services from: convenience store,
meeting place, primary school, public house, post office or doctors surgery
no of additional affordable and local needs homes in national park to be developed
% of working age people in the area who have access to employment by public
transport, cycling or walking
CO2 emissions
% of wildlife sites and important geological sites in national park in conservation
management
% of sites of special scientific interest in national park in a favourable or recovering
condition
area of land in relevant agri-environment schemes in national park
% of length of public rights of way in park easy to use by members of public
% of rivers and lakes in park in good ecological condition
no of cultural heritage assets at risk in park
Cumbria tourism identified goals for 2018…
increase visitor spend from £1.1b to £1.5b
increase volume of trips from 15.2m to 17m
increase proportion of accommodation providers with a quality grading from 53%
to 80%
its identified as the no 1 rural destination for a holiday or short break by UK
population