Functionalism

Functionalists often use an organic analogy to describe society; Parsons (1970) identifies 3 similarities between society and a biological organism:
SYSTEM: organisms (e.g. human body) + society both self-regulating systems or inter-related, interdependent parts that fit together
SYSTEM NEEDS: organisms have needs e.g. nutrition. If these needs not met, organism dies. Social system has basic needs that must be met to survive too
FUNCTIONS: function of anything id contribution it makes to meeting a system’s needs, thus ensuring survival

Value Consensus and Social Order

Parsons argues social order achieved through existence of shared culture/central value system
Culture = set of norms, values, beliefs + goals shared by members of a society
Provides framework for individuals
Social order only possible if members of society agree on this framework
Parsons calls this agreement value consensus

Integration of Individuals

Basic function of value consensus is making social order possible; does this through integrating individuals into social system, directs them to meet system’s needs
System has 2 mechanisms to ensure individuals conform to shared norms + meet needs:
SOCIALISATION: teach individuals to want to do what is required of them. Through socialisation, we internalise system’s norms + values, becomes part of our personality structure. Agents of socialisation include family, education and so on…
SOCIAL CONTROL: positive sanctions reward conformity, negative ones punish deviance…
So, through these mechanisms, our behaviour orientates around pursuing society’s goals + meeting needs = predictable + stable behaviour = cooperative
Makes orderly social life possible
From this, Parson builds detailed model of social system

The Parts of the Social System

Takes “building block” approach
At the bottom, we have individual actions
Each action governed by specified norms + values; come in ‘clusters’ = status-roles
Statuses = positions that exist in given social system e.g. teacher
Roles = set of norms that explain how occupant of status carries out duties
Status-roles also come in clusters (institutions) e.g. family
Related institutions = sub-systems
Sub-systems grouped together = social system as a whole

The System’s Needs

“AGIL” Schema
Each need met by a separate sub-system of institutions:
ADAPTATION – social system meets members’ material needs through economic sub-system
GOAL ATTAINMENT – society needs to set goals + allocate resources to achieve them. Function of political sub-system e.g. institutions like Parliament
INTEGRATION – different parts of system must be integrated together to pursue shared goals. Role of sub-system of religion, media + education
LATENCY – processes that maintain society over time. Kinship sub-system provides pattern maintenance (socialising individuals) and tension management (a place to ‘let off steam’)
P describes adaptation + goal attainment as instrumental needs – instrumental = means to an end
Integration + latency expressive needs as they involve expression/channelling of emotions

Social Change

Two types of society: modern and traditional; each with own set of norms
E.g. in modern we pursue individual self-interest, achieve status, judged by universalistic standards VS traditional put collective interests first, status ascribed + judged by particularistic standards
For P, change is gradual, evolutionary process of increasing complexity + structural differentiation
Society’s go from simplistic to complex structures
But, as society’s develop, kinship system loses functions to things like political parties, school and so on
This is structural differentiation – gradual process in which separate, functionally specialised institutions develop, each meeting different needs
Thus, gradual change occurs through moving (or dynamic) equilibrium; as one change occurs in one part of the system, changes occur in other parts
E.g. rise of industry brings change from extended family to nuclear

Merton’s Internal Critique of Functionalism

Criticises three assumptions of Parsons:
INDISPENSABILITY: P assumes all things in society, in current form, functionally indispensable. M argues this is an untested assumption + could be ‘functional alternatives’
FUNCTIONAL UNITY: P assumes all parts of society tightly integrated into single unit + each part functional for the rest. Change in one part leads to ‘knock-on’ effect. But, neither assumption necessarily true. Complex society has many parts, distantly ‘related’. Instead of functional unity, we have ‘functional autonomy’. Difficult to see connections
UNIVERSAL FUNCTIONALISM: P assumes everything performs positive functions yet some things for one group is functional, for another could be dysfunctional. Dysfunction introduces neglected note to functionalism as it suggests conflict of interests = conflict theory!

Manifest and Latent Functions

M gives an example to make his point here; Hopi Indians, when in drought, perform rain dances to magically produce rain = manifest (intended) function; promotes sense of solidarity in times of hardship = latent (unintended function)

External Critiques of Functionalism

1 – Logical Criticisms

Functionalism argued to be teleological (idea that things exist because of their effect/function)
But critics argue real explanation of something comes from cause, logically this must come before an effect
Functionalism explains existence of one thing in terms of something that can only be its effect
Also criticised for being unscientific as it’s unable or difficult to be falsified

2 – Conflict Perspective Criticisms

E.g. Marxists criticise Functionalism for its inability to explain conflict + change
Arises partially through organic analogy
Marxists argue society not a harmonious whole; it’s actually based on exploitation + divided into two classes with conflicted interests and unequal power
Stability provided by dominant class who use coercion or manipulation to prevent change = shared values merely a cloak to hide dominant classes interests
Conflict theorists see functionalism as a conservative ideology legitimating status quo
All theories e.g. ‘universal functionalism’ help to justify social order as inevitable + desirable; critics argue approach legitimates privileged position of powerful groups

3 – Action Perspective Criticisms

Wrong (1961) says functionalism ‘over-socialised’ or deterministic view of individual. He describes functionalism as: the social system uses socialisation to shape people’s behaviour so that they will meet the system’s needs by performing their prescribed roles
Individuals have no free will or choice (puppets on strings)
From action perspective, this is wrong!
Individuals actually create society by their interactions
Similar criticism, functionalism reifies society – it treats it as distinct thing over + above individuals
Action perspective argues society isn’t a thing out there with independent existence
Only socially reality constructed by individuals

4 – Postmodernist Criticism

They argue functionalism can’t account for diversity or instability of postmodern society
Functionalism = meta-narrative that attempts to create model of working of society
But, overall theory no longer possible as today’s society fragmented

Conclusion

Functionalism seeks to answer fundamental question of how social order is possible even if answer too deterministic and neglects conflict
Craib (1992) says P’s theory “has it’s own faults, but at least it is a theory of society as a whole”

Quick-Check Questions

A manifest function is intended whereas latent is unintended.
Wrong means individuals are seen as puppets of the system, with no free will or choice when he mentions ‘over-socialised’.
Functionalism is a conservative ideology.
Societies change gradually, through a process of structural differentiation and through a process of dynamic (or moving) equilibrium.
The organic analogy refers to when society is compared to a body or organism.
Parson’s four system need are: adaptation, goal attainment, integration, latency.
a) Two agencies of socialisation are the family and the workplace
b) Two agencies of social control are the police and prison.