Raymond Novaco (1975) Suggests cognitive factors trigger emotional arousal which leads to aggressive acts. In behaviourist terms becoming angry is reinforced by the individuals feeling of control in that situation. As such, anger management programmes are a form of...
Switch emphasis from needs of the state (crime against the state) to needs of the individual victims; victims encouraged to take an active role in process. John Braithwaite (2004) – ‘crime hurts, justice should heal’; collaboration between the offender and the victim...
Custodial Sentencing: Convicted offender spends time in prison or another closed institution such as a young offender’s institute or psychiatric hospital 4 Aims: Deterrence – puts of offender or society at large from offending. General deterrence – send out broad...
Based on the behaviourist approach – all human behaviour is learned, and it should be possible to encourage the unlearning of behaviour by using the same principles. Behaviour modification involves reinforcing obedience and punishing disobedience. Made possible in...
Inadequate Superego Theory Tripartite structure of personality – id, ego, superego Superego formed at the end of the phallic stage when children resolve the Oedipus/Electra complex Superego – morality principle, punishes ego through guilt or rewards with pride...
Levels of Moral Reasoning: Kohlberg applied concept of moral reasoning to criminal behaviour. People’s judgements of right and wrong can be shown in a stage theory of moral development – the higher the stage, the more sophisticated the reasoning. Based theory off...
Scientific basis: Edwin Sunderland said ‘the conditions which are said to cause the crime should be present when crime is present, and absent when crime is absent’ Offending behaviour may be acquired through learning processes Crime as learned behaviour: ...
Evidence suggests neural difference in brains of criminals and non-criminals, most evidence in this area is found in individuals diagnosed with APD (formerly known as psychopathy). This is in many convicted criminals and is associated with reduced emotional responses,...
Support for Diathesis-Stress Model – Sarnoff Mednick et al (1984) conducted study of 13,000 Danish adoptees. Researchers defined criminal behaviour as at least 1 court conviction, checked against Danish police records for each adoptee. If neither biological nor...
General personality theory: Hans Eysenck (1947) important figure in personality and intelligence during 50’s and 60’s, proposed that behaviour could be represented along 2...
Twin studies Importance of genes is illustrated by twin studies ...
Historical approach to offending: Suggested by Cesare Lombroso (1876) Offenders seen as lacking evolutionary development, savage and untamed nature meant they would find it impossible to adjust to civilised society and inevitably turn to crime. Lombroso saw criminal...
Investigative tool employed by police, narrows down field of enquiry and suspects. Methods vary but usually involve careful scrutiny of crime scene and analysis of the evidence in order to generate hypotheses about the probable characteristics of the offender. The Top...
Problems in defining crime: Cultural – one culture’s crime may not be another, eg: in the UK, bigamy is a crime, yet in some cultures polygamy is practised Historical – what was a crime in the past may not be a crime today, or vice versa, eg: homosexuality was a...