- Explain what is meant by the terms ‘universality’ and ‘bias’ in relation to gender [4 marks]
Universality refers to any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing. The universality of findings in Psychology are threatened by gender bias.
Bias is a tendency to treat one individual or group in a different way from others so in terms of gender that would be males and females. Concerns of bias are raised when research or theories offer a view that might not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men or women (usually women).
- Outline gender bias in psychology. Include in your answer reference to androcentrism [6 marks]
Concerns about gender bias are raised when research or theories offer a view that might not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men or women (usually women). Alpha bias is said to occur where the differences between the sexes are presented as real, enduring, fixed and inevitable. These differences occasionally heighten the value of women, but are more likely to devalue females in relation to males. For example, sexual promiscuity in males is naturally selected and genetically determined but females who engage in the same behaviour are seen as going against their ‘nature’. This amounts to an exaggeration of the difference between the sexes (alpha bias). On the other hand, beta bias occurs when differences between men and women are underestimated; for example, where female participants are not included in the research process and it is assumed that research findings apply equally to both sexes. For example, early research into fight or flight was based exclusively on male animals but the fight or flight response was assumed to be a universal response to a threatening situation. One consequence of beta bias is that if our understanding of ‘normal’ behaviour comes from research involving all-male samples, then any behaviour that deviates from this standard is judged as ‘abnormal’ or ‘inferior’. This leads to female behaviour being misunderstood and even pathologised.
- In relation to gender bias in psychology, evaluate the roles of alpha bias and beta bias [6 marks]
One implication of beta-biased research in theories is that may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour and validate discriminatory practices. For example, it might provide a scientific justification to deny women opportunities within the workplace or in wider society (e.g. because of PMS). So gender bias in research is not just a methodological problem but may have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of real women. Furthermore, a lack of women at senior research level means female concerns may not be reflected in research questions, and male researchers are more likely to have work published. Some people will argue that this means that female participants in lab studies are often in an inequitable relationship with a (usually male) researcher who has the power to label them irrational and unable to complete complex tasks. This means psychology may be guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism that creates bias in theory and research. However, an understanding of gender bias is leading to recognition by researchers of the effect of their values on their work (reflexivity). They embrace bias as an important aspect of the research process rather than see it as a problem threatening the objective status of their work. For example, in their study of the lack of women in executive positions in accountancy firms, Dambrin and Lambert (2008) include reflection on how their gender-related experiences influence their understanding of events. This reflexivity is an important development in psychology and may lead to greater awareness of the role of personal bias in shaping future research.
- A news website carried this item: ‘It’s official! Men and women are different. Men really are better at maths and women really are better at talking, psychologists claimed yesterday.’
With references to this item, describe and evaluate the role of gender bias in psychology [16 marks]
Concerns about gender bias are raised when research or theories offer a view that might not justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men or women. Alpha bias is said to occur where the differences between the sexes are presented as real, enduring, fixed and inevitable. In the case of the headline this is what has occurred because they are suggesting that differences in abilities in maths and talking are fixed and from this we can extrapolate that males and females really are different. It could even be said that the characteristics focused upon are likely to devalue females in relation to males, if we assume that ability in maths is more coveted than talking. It could be used against women who wish to opt for mathematical careers but would not be selected, as males are likely to be better at that job. On the other hand, beta bias occurs when differences between men and women are underestimated; for example, where female participants are not included in the research process and it is assumed that research findings apply equally to both sexes. For example, early research into fight or flight was based exclusively on male animals but the fight or flight response was assumed to be a universal response to a threatening situation.
One implication of beta-biased research in theories is that it may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour and validate discriminatory practices. For example, it might provide a scientific justification to deny women opportunities within the workplace or in wider society (e.g. because of PMS). So gender bias in research is not just a methodological problem but may have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of real women.
Furthermore, a lack of women at senior research level means female concerns may not be reflected in research questions asked, and male researchers are more likely to have work published. Some people will argue that this means that female participants in lab studies are often in an inequitable relationship with a (usually male) researcher who has the power to label them irrational and unable to complete complex tasks. This means psychology may be guilty of supporting a form of institutional sexism that creates bias in theory and research.
However, an understanding of gender bias is leading to recognition by researchers of the effect of their values on their work (reflexivity). They embrace bias as an important aspect of the research process rather than see it as a problem threatening the objective status of their work. For example, in their study of the lack of women in executive positions in accountancy firms, Dambrin and Lambert (2008) include reflection on how their gender-related experiences influence their understanding of events. This reflexivity is an important development in psychology and may lead to greater awareness of the role of personal bias in shaping future research.