- In relation to culture in psychology, explain what is meant by the terms ‘bias’ and ‘universality’ [4 marks]
Universality refers to any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing. The universality of findings in Psychology is threatened by culture bias as findings often only reflect the culture of those studied.
Bias is a tendency to treat one individual or group in a different way from others so in terms of culture bias that would mean gender that would be males and females. If the norm or standard for a particular behaviour is judged only from the standpoint of one particular culture (usually a Western one as this is where most research takes place), then any cultural differences in behaviour will inevitably be seen as ‘abnormal’, ‘inferior’ or ‘unusual’ (cultural bias).
- Using an example, outline the role of cultural bias in psychology [6 marks]
Many critics argue that although psychology may claim to have unearthed truths about people all over the world (universality), in reality, findings from studies only apply to the particular groups of people who were studied (i.e. show cultural bias). Researchers have wrongly assumed that findings from studies in Western cultures can be applied all over the world. This bias can also lead to ethnocentrism, the belief in the superiority of one’s own cultural group. This is exemplified by Ainsworth’s Strange Situation research, which is criticised as reflecting only the norms and values of American culture in attachment research. She identified that anxiety on separation was the key defining variable of attachment type and that the ideal (or secure) attachment was the infant showing moderate distress when left alone by the mother figure. When cultural variations were noted they tended to be misinterpreted, for example German mothers were seen as cold and rejecting rather than encouraging independence in their children. Thus the Strange Situation was revealed as an inappropriate measure of attachment type for non-US children. Ainsworth’s research illustrates an imposed etic – she studied behaviours within a single culture (America) and then assumed her ideal attachment type could be applied universally.
- Evaluate the role of cultural bias in psychology [6 marks]
One example of the role of cultural bias is that Psychologists have often referred to culture in the context of individualism versus collectivism, for example attachment research, which suggests that some differences in attachment type can be explained through this distinction. Individualist cultures (e.g. USA) value the individual and independence. Collectivist cultures (e.g. India) value the group and interdependence. Critics argue this is a lazy and simplistic distinction that no longer applies. Takano and Osaka (1999) found 14 out of 15 studies comparing the USA and Japan found no evidence of a distinction between the two types of culture. This could suggest that this form of cultural bias (seeing the world as individualist versus collectivist) is less of an issue than it once was. The ‘imposed etic’ shows the culturally specific nature of psychology. But we should not assume all psychology is culturally relative and that there is no such thing as universal human behaviour. Ekman (1989) suggests basic facial expressions for emotions are the same all over the human and animal world. Some features of human attachment (e.g. imitation and interactional synchrony) are also universal. A full understanding of human behaviour requires the study of both universals and variation among individuals and groups. Furthermore, when conducting research in Western culture, the participants’ familiarity with the general aims and objectives of scientific enquiry is assumed. In cultures without historical experience of research, local populations may be more affected by demand characteristics than Western participants. This is a particular form of cultural bias where unfamiliarity with the research tradition threatens the validity of the outcome.
- Some psychological research has been criticised for studying behaviour in one culture and assuming the findings apply to all cultures.
Discuss cultural bias in psychology. Refer in your answer to ethnocentrism and cultural relativism [16 marks]
Many critics argue that although psychology may claim to have unearthed truths about people all over the world (universality), in reality findings from studies only apply to the particular groups of people who were studied (i.e. show cultural bias). Researchers have wrongly assumed that findings from studies in Western cultures can be applied all over the world. This bias can also lead to ethnocentrism, the belief in the superiority of one’s own cultural group. Respecting cultural relativism helps to avoid cultural bias. The ‘facts’ and ‘things’ that psychologists discover may only make sense from the perspective of the culture within which they were discovered and being able to recognise this is one way of avoiding cultural bias in research. An etic approach to research looks at behaviour from outside a given culture and identifies behaviours that are universal, whilst an emic approach focuses from within certain cultures and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture. Researchers need to avoid an imposed etic where behaviours are studies within a single culture and then assumed to be universally applicable.
One example of the role of cultural bias is that Psychologists have often referred to culture in the context of individualism versus collectivism, for example attachment research. Critics argue this is a lazy and simplistic distinction that no longer applies. Takano and Osaka (1999) found 14 out of 15 studies comparing the USA and Japan found no evidence of a distinction between the two types of culture. This could suggest that this form of cultural bias (seeing the world as individualist versus collectivist) is less of an issue than it once was.
The ‘imposed etic’ shows the culturally specific nature of psychology. But we should not assume all psychology is culturally relative and that there is no such thing as universal human behaviour. Ekman (1989) suggests basic facial expressions for emotions are the same all over the human and animal world. Some features of human attachment (e.g. imitation and interactional synchrony) are universal. A full understanding of human behaviour requires the study of both universals and variation among individuals and groups.
Furthermore, when conducting research in Western culture the participants’ familiarity with the general aims and objectives of scientific enquiry is assumed. In cultures without historical experience of research local populations may be more affected by demand characteristics than Western participants. This is a particular form of cultural bias where unfamiliarity with the research tradition threatens the validity of the outcome.