Objectivity
When the researcher is not being affected by their own expectations, keeping a distance from it.
How to ensure objectivity:
- Data should be collected systematically under controlled conditions e.g. lab
- Research method should be fully standardised so less room for subjectivity/bias
- Impossible to observe behaviour without having expectations of what you’re looking far – which is dependent on relevant hypothesis/theories
- Control of variable is regarded as the best way of enhancing objectivity in experimental research – most objective method is lab experiment
Replicability?
A fundamental part of scientific research is that work can be checked. Confidence in research findings is increased when investigations are repeated and results are similar. This prevents fraudulent data, checks for fluke or chance findings, and allows for generalisations to be made.
How to ensure replicability:
- Psychologists are expected to publish full + precise details of research inc exactly what they did, how the study was carried out, the number of pts etc. – to allow other researchers to repeat the study
- Lab experiments allow good replicability. If it is repeated again and again with similar findings = indicate high internal validity and high replicability.
- Unrepeatable results = imply flaws or a lack of control in method + limited use in theory construction
Empirical methods
Holding a belief that scientific knowledge should be based on evidence received via our senses through direct observation/experience or measurement rather than on intuition/personal opinions. In this way, thoughts, feelings and subjective experiences can only be studied if they can be made observable. We can make data collection more objective by introducing controls & limiting the human element from process of recording results
3 main assumptions:
- – Collected through direct observation/experiment
- – Does not rely on argument/belief
- – Experiment/observations are carried out carefully and reported in detail so that other investigators can repeat and attempt to verify the work
How to ensure empiricism
- Having more than one researcher (control investigator effects)
- Using a repeated design
- Withholding the true aim of the research from pts (control demand characteristics)
- Example is Ainsworth strange situation – overcome problem of observer bias by videotapes + one-way mirror
Theory construction
Theory: a collection of general principles that explain observations, results + behaviour, and help us to understand and predict the behaviour around us. Theory must be able to be scientifically tested.
Popper proposed a model of how science progresses, how science should be conducted and how theories are generated. He suggested there is a series of stages in scientific process, based on research cycle in which theories are tested and evaluated
Popper’s cycle of scientific method
- Identify a problem (from observation, previous research)
- Develop a hypothesis about problem: predictable + testable
- Devise a study to test hypothesis
- Develop a study
- Modify and repeat the process
- Modify a theory
Hypothesis testing
Should be possible to make clear and precise predictions on the basis of the theory. A statement made at the beginning of an investigation that serves as a prediction and is derived from a theory. There are different types of hypotheses (null and alternative) which need to be stated in a form that can be tested i.e. operationalised + unambiguous. The hypothesis can either support/contradict a theory. Hypotheses are first developed and empirically tested, which can lead to other hypotheses and hence the construction of theories.
Falsifiability
Any scientific hypothesis/research must be inherently falsifiable, or disprovable, before it can be accepted as a scientific hypothesis or theory. Popper saw falsifiability as black/white definition – if a theory is falsifiable, it is scientific. However, psychology may fall somewhere between 2 extremes – the only way to prove a theory is look for disproof (Kuhn) – then research is started with null hypothesis
Paradigms – Kuhn
General theory/law accepted by majority of scientists in a particular field of study. Can change dependant on new evidence discovered – if it suggests that current paradigm is not adequate at explaining behaviour as was once thought. Enough evidence may accumulate = so current paradigm is replaced – known as a paradigm shift. Psychology has no accepted paradigm – as it’s a new (pre)science + considered as a pre-science.