- With reference to either research studies or theories, explain what is meant by ‘ethical implications’ [3 marks]
Ethical implications are the impact that psychological research may have at a societal level, in terms of influencing public policy and/or the way in which certain groups of people are regarded. For example, Bowlby’s argument, that mother love in infancy is as important for mental health as vitamins are for physical health, influenced the way in which at least a generation of children were raised. It may have also influenced the UK government’s decision not to offer free child care places to children under-five (despite the fact that this is typical in other European countries).
- Outline one or more ethical implication(s) of research studies in psychology [4 marks]
Burt’s view that intelligence is genetic, based on his research studies of twins showing a heritability coefficient of .77 (Burt 1955), gave credence to the idea that it was sensible to test children at age 11 to judge their intelligence and school them according to that intelligence. The 11+ and grammar school system was based on this but the data was later found to be fraudulent. The ethical implications of this are that generations of children’s life opportunities were falsely decided by the resulting system. Bandura’s bobo doll study found that children exposed to role models being aggressive to a bobo doll also became aggressive themselves. This research has led to policies such as video ratings on films and video games in recognition that younger children are particularly vulnerable to such vicarious influences.
- Outline two ethical implications of theories in psychology [4 marks]
Bowlby’s theory, that mother love in infancy is as important for mental health as vitamins are for physical health, influenced the way in which at least a generation of children were raised. It may have also influenced the UK government’s decision not to offer free child care places to children under-five (despite the fact that this is typical in other European countries).
Behavioural theories have shown how we can influence behaviour through reinforcement. For example, a parent might consistently reward a child for being quiet and passive to encourage that behaviour. Whilst this may be preferential in the short term for the parent, the lack of interaction may have harmful implications for the child in terms of language and socialisation.
- Discuss the ethical implications of research studies and/or theories in psychology. Refer in your answer to social sensitivity [16 marks]
Ethical implications are the impact that psychological research may have at a societal level, in terms of influencing public policy and/or the way in which certain groups of people are regarded. For example, Bowlby’s argument, that mother love in infancy is as important for mental health as vitamins are for physical health, influenced the way in which at least a generation of children were raised. It may have also influenced the UK government’s decision not to offer free child care places to children under-five (despite the fact that this is typical in other European countries). Socially sensitive research is so named when there are potential social implications, either directly for the participants in research or the class of individuals represented by the research. For example: research investigating the genetic basis of criminality might have far-reaching consequences for those who take part (children of known criminals might be denied opportunities) or for the broader social groups the participants represent.
Another strength is the understanding that how research questions are phrased and investigated may influence the ways findings are interpreted. Kitzinger and Coyle (1995) note how research into so-called ‘alternative relationships’ has been guilty of ‘heterosexual bias’. This suggests that investigators must approach their research with an ‘open mind’ and be prepared to have their preconceptions challenged to avoid misrepresenting minority groups.
The potential damage of psychological research is demonstrated when it has been used to shape social policy, despite the sometimes dubious nature of the findings (e.g. Burt’s research into IQ). Packard (1957) claimed sales of Coca-Cola and popcorn increased when images of the products were flashed on cinema screens too quickly for audiences to be aware of them (subliminal). It was later revealed Packard had made his findings up! Research that seeks to manipulate the public has obvious ethical implications. It also raises the question of who benefits from such research – which may be particularly difficult to manage once the research is ‘out there’.
In the US in the 1920s and 30s, a large number of US states enacted legislation that led to the compulsory sterilisation of many of its citizens. These people were judged to be ‘feeble-minded’ and a drain on society (e.g. those of ‘low intelligence’, drug/ alcohol addicts and the mentally ill). Some psychologists argued they were ‘unfit’ to breed. The fact that socially sensitive research has been used to ‘prop up’ discriminatory practices in the past is an argument against its widespread adoption.
Research that carries ethical implications (or is socially sensitive) is scrutinised by an ethical committee – it is their job to weigh up the costs and benefits of the research. However, some of the social consequences of research involving vulnerable groups may be difficult to anticipate, Assessments of the ‘worth’ of such research are typically subjective, and the real impact of research can only ever be known once it has been made public.