What Was the Suez Crisis, How Did It Develop and What Were the Consequences of It?

  1. How did events leading up to the crisis develop in Egypt?
  • By 1947, Britain fearful about communist Russia’s ambitions in Middle East. Britain still had 10,000 troops stationed in Suez Canal as well as over Egyptian base Aden after 1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty. Britain also had control over Cyprus and air-force bases In Iraq, as well as financing and providing officers for Jordanian Army, giving illusion of strong presence.
  • Britain tried negotiating with nationalist Arab League to resist communist infiltration, Arabs weren’t prepared to support the British. Years around 1947 saw constant skirmishing around Canal Zone and in 1951, King Farouk of Egypt independently renounced the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty and proclaimed himself King of Sudan.
  • In January 1952, Farouk himself was overthrown in military coup by Colonel Nasser. Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden immediately sought to negotiate Egypt’s new rulers and in 1953, agreement was made on stages towards Sudanese independence.
  • In 1954, British agreed to phased withdrawal of troops from Suez Canal Zone subject to certain rights of reoccupation in time of war. Reflect Britain’s desire to improve Anglo-Arab relations and also Britain’s financial difficulties as they couldn’t afford to station troops at the Zone. Egyptians promised British:
    • Free access through Suez Canal
    • Maintenance of former British bases in operational condition
    • To respect independence of Suez Canal Company, ownership which would revert to Egyptian government in 1968 after Nasser would compensate French and British shareholders.
  • Settlement led to period of British diplomacy and Britain engineered Baghdad Pact between Turkey, Pakistan, Iraq, Britain and Persia in 1955 to repel Soviet threat to Middle East. Nasser refused to sign and when British tried bringing Jordan into pact, put pressure on them not to sign. Nasser turned to Communist Czechoslovakia for arms in 1956 and signed alliance with Syria. Eden à
  • In June 1956, Nasser made himself President of Egypt. Determined to establish Egypt as leading power in Middle East. Plans centred on construction of Aswan High Dam which he’d hoped would make programme of irrigation, flood control and electrification. Obtained promises of financial aid from both West and from Russia in 1955, but in July 1956, the USA (followed by Britain and World Bank) announced withdrawal of funding because of Nasser’s continued association with communist powers.

 

  1. What happened in the Suez Canal crisis?
  • In July 1956, Nasser announced nationalisation of Suez Canal Company, which was direct blow to British government who held 44% of shares. Britain tried using diplomatic pressure to persuade Nasser to reverse decision, while preparing for military action in case of failure. French also outraged and invited Britain to join France in joint assault on Egypt, in alliance with Israel, who was also affected.
  • Though efforts continued via UN, secret Anglo-French military discussions took place and in October, Eden believed only removal of Nasser would ensure security of British and French interests in Middle East, proclaiming he needed to be ‘destroyed’ as he felt mistakes of appeasement in the 1930s would repeat.
  • Plan was hatched via ‘Protocol of Sevres’ whereby Israel would attack Egypt on 29th On following day, France and Britain would demand both sides cease fighting and withdraw troops from vicinity of canal, followed by Franco-British invasion of Canal zone on 31st October to protect it.
  • Israelis routed Egyptian forces and forced them through Sinai Peninsula towards canal, at which point Britain and France intervened in a supposed ‘police’ action. Anglo-French force knocked out Egyptian Air Force and landed at north end of canal but Egyptians put up solid resistance and blocked canal with sunken ships.
  • British miscalculated international reaction, embarking on military operations without informing the USA, whom immediately condemned the attack and refused to support sterling in currency crisis which war brought upon Britain.
  • Britain announced a cease-fire within 5 days and both Britain and France began to withdraw troops within weeks. Eden forced to resign and a United Nations force moved in to clear blocked canal and restore peace.

 

  1. What were the consequences of the Suez Canal crisis?
  • A growing realisation across political spectrum in Britain that Empire’s days were numbered. Crisis is portrayed as ‘Britain’s last fling of the imperial dice’.
  • Britain wouldn’t act again in an imperial or international excursion alone nor without approval and close consultation of the United States. Britain becoming a major independent power wouldn’t happen and dreams of these were quelled.
  • Suggested nationalist movements seeking to achieve independence should push harder to force Britain to surrender. Made Britain’s task of containing independence movements increasingly difficult.
  • Called into question whole credibility of plans to hold onto formal colonies in Africa and elsewhere, encouraging British politicians that it was best to accede to nationalist demands soon. MacMillan’s ‘winds of change’ speech assisted to this.
  • Dispelled notion that Britain could ‘control’ imperial retreat in ways that would preserve British power.
  • After crisis, Britain’s position in Middle East only declined further. Iraq left the Baghdad Pact in 1959, Cyprus was granted independence in 1959 after years of terrorism and violence between Turkish and Greek communities. By the mid-1960s, Britain only controlled air bases in Libya and retained protectorate over a few sheikdoms in Persian Gulf, Aden and South Arabian Federation, however Britain lost Aden in 1967 due to nationalist uprisings.

Britain’s ‘special relationship’ with the US was damaged: Eisenhower refused to provide billions of dollars to save the sterling so long as Britain remained stationed in Egypt. However, relations were quickly repaired after this and the UK adopted the US’ Polaris missile system by 1962 as well as signing a Mutual Defence Agreement in 1958