THE PROBLEM POSED BY ETHNIC MINORITIES
Tsarist Russia was a multi-national Empire inhabited by over 100 different ethnic groups. Although the Slavs in Russia, Ukraine, and Belorussia comprised ⅔ of the population, the remaining peoples were a mixture of many different nationalities, languages, religions & cultural traditions.
Diverse empire posed a continual challenge for the tsarist autocracy particularly as the development of national ideology in the nineteenth century provoked ethnic groups (including the Russian Slavs) to assert their distinctive identities.
Polish nationalism had surfaced & brought rebellion in 1830.
1840 – Finnish language pressure was set up & local language newspapers were founded in the Baltic regions.
Ukraine – the secret ‘Brotherhood of Saints Cyril & Methodius’ provoked a national consciousness that sought to separate Ukrainian Slavs from Russian Slavs.
Such aspirations were met by a Russian determination to assert their national superiority
ALEXANDER II AND THE ETHNIC MINORITIES
A II like predecessors was more concerned w/control than racial superiority – reacted strongly after Polish rebellion in 1863 & sent brother to deal w/rebels
More than 200k Poles had joined in underground National Government for Poland & they used guerrilla warfare (a form of fighting using ambushes & sabotage rather than raids & conventional fighting) against Imperial masters, but were crushed in 1864.
A II did not engage in systematic persecution of racial minorities & used concessions as means to keep control. E.g. Latvians & Estonians were allowed to revert to Lutheranism, where previously they had been forced Orthodox.
He allowed the Finns to have own Parli. (Diet) & tried to maintain good relationship w/them.
HOWEVER
The period of increased reaction towards the end of the reign saw growing intolerance of national differences (Tsar’s ministers & administrators who were keen to reinforce tsarist regime).
= prohibition on the use of the Ukrainian language in publications or performances in 1876. This more hostile attitude was to turn into far more aggressive campaign under A III.
RUSSIFICATION UNDER A III
A III & ministers, particularly Pobedonostsev, engaged in policy of ‘cultural Russification’
- This sought to merge all the Tsar’s subjects into a single nation with a feeling of shared identity.
The destruction of non-Russian cultures was most evident within Poland & Finland.
In Finland, the diet was re-organised in 1892 to weaken its’ political influence. Use of Russian language was increasingly demanded, independent postal service abolished & Russian currency replaced local.
In Poland, the Polish National Bank was closed (1885) & in schools & unis all subjects except Polish lang. were taught in Russian (even Polish lit) – the administration of Poland was changed to curb independence.
The Baltic Germans who had special protection pre A III were under severe Russification.
1885-1889 – enforced Russian in all state offices, schools, police force & judicial system.
German University ‘Dorpar’ was russified & became Iurev University (1889-93).
Russification was extended to Belorussia, Georgia & the Ukraine.
In Ukraine, use of Ukrainian language was limited in 1883 & in 1884 all theatres in Ukraine were closed. Military service was extended to those previously w/out & conscripts from national areas were dispersed to prevent national groupings developing in the army, where business was entirely in Russian.
Uprisings of ethnic peoples were suppressed in Guriya, Georgia 1892, Bashkiria 1884, Fergana (modern day Uzbekistan) & Armenia 1886 & at Tashkent 1892.
Adherence to Orthodox Church was encouraged & there were laws that benefited Orthodoxs. In Baltic 37,000 Lutherans mass converted to Orthodox to take adv. Of special support.
Poland, Catholic monasteries closed down, reduced influence of Priest & incentives for non-Catholics to settle there. In Asia, Orthodox Missionary Society converted ‘heathen (Muslims) & forced baptised.
POST 1883 – members of non-Orthodox Church were not allowed to build new places of worship, wear religious dress except within meeting place / spread any religious propaganda. Any attempt to convert a member of the Orthodox Church to another faith was made punishable by exile to Siberia.
RESULTS OF RUSSIFICATION
Russification was not accepted w/out resistance.
JUNE 1888, Department of Police estimated ≈ 332 cases of mass disturbance in 61 ⁄ 92 provinces & districts. (incl. 43 disturbances in 9/12 central provinces)
In 51 cases, the military was employed.
Russification caused resentment w/more educated & wealthy Finns, Poles & Baltic Germans is West of Russia. – Here, national groups petitioned the Tsars for more liberties, & secret publication of local language books cont.
Some ethnic schools survived (partic. Poland) & fanned flames of resentment to Tsar.
Supporters of Russification genuinely beloved they were acting for the greater good of Russia
- Believed it was necessary to ‘unite’ the country to improve administration & allow modernisation & reassert Russian strength
- Was a time of strong nationalistic feeling in Europe
Generally believed that Russification was a misguided policy, had the opposite effect from that intended.
PETER WALDRON – writes that Russification ‘failed to achieve its ends’ & ‘intensified national feeling among the non-Russians of the Empire’ & drove some of the wealthier citizens to emigrate & persuaded others to join political opposition groups.
ANTI-SEMITISM
Racial group that suffered the most from intense nationalism was Jews
- Possessed a distinctive ethnic background & religion
- ≈ 5 million Jews in Russian Empire & since 1736 most had been confined to PALE OF SETTLEMENT
During A II, anti-Semitism existed in poorer elements in society (hated Jews bc. teachings of Orthodox Church (believed Jews killed Jesus) & personal riches bc. Jews were money lenders)
A II allowed wealthier Jews to settle elsewhere until Polish revolt scared him into withdrawing concessions & reducing participation of Jews in town gov.
- This action encouraged the growth of anti-Semitism.
FURTHER ENCOURAGED in A III by ministers like Pobedonostsev who said ‘Beat the Yids – Save Russia’ & said that ‘⅓ should emigrate, ⅓ die & ⅓ assimilate’.
A III himself was anti-Semitic, (mostly religious reasons), he wrote in the margin of a
Document ‘but we must never forget that the Jews have crucified our Master & have shed his precious blood’.
Also had poli concerns. Right wing Russian oppressors had helped encourage belief that Jews had orchestrated A II’s assassination & real fear of Jewish involvement in growing opposition movements.
THE JEWISH POGROMS OF 1881-84
Concentration of Jews in the Pale made them ready targets for the anti-Jewish pogroms that broke out in April 1881 in Yelizavetgrad, Ukraine.
- Immediate cause of pogroms is unknown – could have been business competition for railway contracts
- Highly probable that they were encouraged by the Okhrana by using A II’s assassination as an excuse
Governing authorities did little to stop violence – were slow to act & ‘Holy League’ org, supported by Pobedonostsev, helped to coordinate early attacks – but stopped in 82.
From Yelizavetgrad, riots spread to Kiev & Odessa & Warsaw & Nizhny Novgorod, – causing many Jews to flee across the border into West Europe.
- ≈ 16 maj. Cities affected, w/Jewish property burnt & shops & businesses destroyed & many incidences of rape & murder.
Main outbreaks continued into 84, but there were some in Odessa in 86.
ANTISEMITIC LAWS IN 19TH CENTURY RUSSIA
This chronology highlights anti-Jewish laws passed under Tsar Alexander III and Nicholas II.
1882 The Governor-General of St. Petersburg orders fourteen Jewish apothecaries to shut down their businesses.
1886 A Senatorial decision sets forth that no Jew could be elected to a vacancy on the board of an orphan asylum.
1886 A circular of the Minister of Finance and a Senatorial decree introduced rigorous restrictions concerning Jews engaged in the liquor traffic, permitting them to sell liquor only from their own homes and owned property.
1887 A Senatorial resolution states that Jews who graduated from a university outside Russia do not belong to the privileged class possessing the universal right of residence by virtue of their diplomas, and therefore must not settle outside the Pale of Settlement.
1887 An Imperial sanction prohibits Jews from settling in Finland.
1889 Jews must obtain a special permit from the Minister of Justice to be elected to the Bar.
1891 An order forbids non-Christians from acquiring real estate in the provinces of Akmolinski, Semirietchensk, Uralsk and Turgai.
1892 In accordance with a proposal of the Imperial Council, the mining industry in Turkestan was closed to Jews.
THE IMPACT OF ANTI-SEMITISM
Many Jews left the country – some of free will but others were forcibly expelled e.g. Kiev 1886.
POST 1890 – Foreign Jews began to be deported from Russia w/Russian Jews who had settled outside the Pale
WINTER 1891-92 ≈ 10K Jewish artisans expelled from Moscow where they were legally settled in A II reign.
- More expulsions occurred when A III’s brother was made Governor General in 92 – forced ≈ 20K Jews from city during Passover & closed a newly built synagogue
Among Jews left in Russia: driven to revolutionary groups in partic. Marxist social orgs