English society did not suffer much compared to their foreign European counterparts. No
English town suffered a prolonged siege or needed fortifications. Looting was rare and highly
localised. Land was not ravaged by sweeping chevauchees. Military fortifications were not
built in the 15th century.
• However, English society was still affected by a lack of governance, and was a constant
concern across society. Conflict had resulted in the deaths of over 40 noblemen, and many
casualties among the gentry. Baronial factions and rivalries therefore re-shaped aristocratic
society, because it allowed others to rise to greater ranks and wealth. There was a flow of
new men in positions of power and authority.
• In comparison, lower levels of society were not dramatically affected by the conflict. Manors
and estates continued their normal operations, and daily life was not impacted much.
Similarly, religious and urban societies were not affected by the conflict. Only several towns
were required for billeting military forces.
• Trade and the economy – England’s economy was not unified due to vast regional variations.
Regions such as the South East prospered compared to areas like the South West. This also
applied to urban economies. Factors other than civil war were having a greater impact on
the English economy, such as the growing cloth trade impacting English rural communities.
Trade with the Low Countries was affected by the English Crown’s relations with the Duchy
of Burgundy, which impacted Hanseatic merchants. Piracy in the English Channel was often
connected to the English civil conflict. By the end of the 15th century, English merchants
were being expelled from important trading areas. The political conflict may have affected
the government’s ability to support these merchants. However, English merchants also had
failings as businessmen.
• Central authority and the regions – The governance of England was increasingly dominated
by the central authority of London and Westminster. Regional management relied on the
strength of royal authority. The north was consistently a difficult region for the monarch to
control, throughout the course of the Wars of the Roses, due to the prevalence of
‘overmighty subjects’ being difficult to manage. By 1499, the North was less problematic for
Henry VII due to the Earl of Surrey and other agents within the region. Henry VII chose to
retain his northern estates to maintain personal control in the North, and did not create a
northern council until 1501. Henry VII was effective in centralising authority, and delegated
authority to manage his regions. Towns and cities were given some autonomy. The
interaction between the centre and provinces remained largely unchanged: royal authority
demanded action from the localities.
