- By end of late nineteenth century, Britain became increasingly concerned about its position in relation to other European powers. It began to face challenge from other expanding, industrialising powers.
- In 1871, Germany united as a single country. Because of its vast natural resources, it began to expand and show its ships on the High Seas.
- In 1871, France was defeated by Germany. France still transformed its armed forces and wanted to show ‘rightful place’ in the world.
- Russia, though less industrially advanced, began transforming economy and extending borders into Central Asia. In 1884, it’d taken its empire to the borders of Afghanistan. Russia also began constructing railway network which British feared could challenge presence in India.
- Disraeli invaded Afghanistan in 1878 due to fear of Russian influence growing. Made Amir accept British control of Afghan foreign policy, showing influence of international pressure on colonial policy.
- Naval building programmes of France and Russia caused concern in 1880s. Threat from Germany become acute in last decade of the century, as this gave nations the means to explore other areas, for example Africa and Asia.
- In South East Asia, French established themselves in Indo-China in 1860s pushing north, where they were joined by Germans seeking commercial concessions.
- Russia also set on imperial expansion in north of China with work on Trans-Siberian Railway beginning in 1891.
- British response to the French activity in Indo-China was to annex territory in:
- Malaya (1874), extending British influence from beyond Singapore (1819)
Sarawak, North Borneo (1881), Brunei (1885) and Upper Burma (1885), leaving Thailand as buffer between rival European powers.