- BURMA:
- British decided to grant independence to Burma shortly after war, following violent activities of nationalists and ascendancy of AFPFL, led by Aung San. Breakdown of order hastened British withdrawal as they planned to take slower approach.
- Talks took place between Aung San and Attlee’s government in London in 1947 and agreed that elections for Constituent Assembly would take place in 1948. Produced huge AFPFL majority however different factions within AFPFL couldn’t agree on Burma’s future path and in July 1947, Aung San and 6 of cabinet ministers assassinated by rival political faction.
- Achievement of independence of Burma in 1948 was not quiet and brought eruption of civil war and Burmese completely turned back on British, rejecting idea of Commonwealth.
- MALAYA:
- British faced serious problems in establishing control in Malaya in 1945. Peninsula suffered from ethnic tensions between Chinese and Indians and Malay peoples. UMNO (United Malays National Organisation) created in March 1946 to fight for rights of Malay peoples. Chinese represented by Malay Chinese Association or Malayan Communist Party. Chinese were prominent in labour unions and involved in series of strikes between 1945 and 1948.
- Tensions had run high – 1947, British colonial administration had to abandon original plan (drawn up by Edward Gent in 1944) to create a ‘Malay Union’. Would have awarded equal Malay citizenship to all ethnic groups while keeping Singapore as separate Crown Colony.
- In June 1947, British produced new scheme which offered much more restricted definition of Malay citizenship (including competence in Malay and English languages, discriminatory against Chinese). New arrangements of Federation of Malaya were enacted in January 1948 and established Executive Council, which had native representation but ultimately headed by British High Commissioner.
- New federation was beset by problems, partly result of difficult post-war economic circumstances and partly product of Chinese grievances. British frightened by potentially damaging impact of rebel attacks on rubber plantation that they declared State of Emergency in June 1948, empowering colonial authorities to use military force and additional legal powers to arrest suspects.
- Troubles raged between 1948-1952 and saw assignation of British High Commissioner Sir Henry Gurney in 1951. By 1952, order was restored and
British believed hold on Malay secured. British had to make promise of Malay independence however. Also promoted Malay Chinese Association, which also wanted independence, but with equal rights for Chinese. - Between 1952 and 1954 however, both Malays and Chinese united against British rule and together won 81% of votes in federal elections of 1955 and British feared if they resisted any longer, rebellion would occur due to similar parallels in Vietnam,
- Reid Commission led by Lord William Reid established in 1955 to draw up new democratic constitution and in 1957, independent Malaya established. Continued military presence remained in Singapore.
- SINGAPORE:
- Had enjoyed long degree of internal control over affairs and had predominantly Chinese population and treated separate from rest of Malay Peninsula. During 1947-1948 given own government with Executive and Legislative Council however only 6/25 seats elected and only British subjects (10% of population) had right to vote.
- As part of Federation, government in Singapore struggled to stop communism. In addition to arrests and imprisonment, attempt made to win loyalty of population by enlarging Legislative Council to 32 seats, with 25 chosen by 300,000 electorate in 1953. First elected council had been dominated by Singapore Progressive Party à a conservative group that favoured businessmen.
- In 1955, SPP won only 3 seats and many left-wing parties emerged, including UMNO and MCA alliance. Alliance sought discussions with British about self-rule and Lim Yew Hock impressed British by taking strong action against communists and persuaded Britain in 1957 to implement full internal self-government for Singapore, though island remained part of Empire à State of Singapore Act 1958.
- In 1959, Lee Kuan Yew of PAP (slightly communist) came to power and British decided in 1963 that Singapore’s future best be assured as part of Malaya, which became ‘Malaysia’.
Scheme proved unworkable and race riots between Chinese and Malays led to breakdown in public order and in August 1965, Singapore expelled from Malaysia and became independent.