How Did Decolonisation Develop in Africa?

  • Britain’s post-colonial policy placed emphasis on developing African colonies, creation of policy enshrined in Colonial Development Corporation. Second World War however accelerated economic growth of colonies in response to needs of war effort and this, in addition to growing industrialisation, led to new nationalist ideas.
  • WEST AFRICA:
    • THE GOLD COAST:
      • British administrators had anticipated during war that rise of educated African elite meant allowing some African political representation however British wanted change to be gradual and have no imposition on British interests.
      • In 1946, Burns Constitution (named after Governor-General Alan Burns) drawn up in Gold Coast, establishing Legislative Council with elected African members though final power remained in hands of British Governor.
      • Convention People’s Party (CPP) founded by Kwame Nkrumah in 1949 pressurised British to make further concessions: Legislative Council enlarged and renamed Assembly and number of voting rights increased but still power remained in hands of British governor.
      • Though Nkrumah jailed in 1950, CPP won 2/3 of seats in 1951 and became clear to Burns that CPP would rule therefore Nkrumah released and given position of Prime Minister from 1952 with members of CPP taking posts of ministers.
      • Elected government given extensive control over internal affairs and Nkrumah’s popularity grew. In 1956, plebiscite in neighbouring British Mandate of Togoland gave vote for unification with Gold Coast. Support for independence was so high that elections in 1957 passed on adult suffrage.
      • Country became fully independent in 1957 but Nkrumah proved divisive and authoritarian in later years of rule.
    • NIGERIA:
      • In 1946, Richards Constitution drawn up (named after Arthur Richards, Governor-General). Allowed for greater African representation but Governor-General and Executive Council appointed by Governor retained power. Country was regionally and ethnically divided and British took view that any move towards independent Nigeria should take form of federation of separate regional states. Thus, three assemblies for each 3 major regions – West, East and South.
      • Greater pressure for change from nationalist movements forced Macpherson Constitution of 1951 (named after Governor-General after Richards, John Macpherson), which extended right to vote and created National Council of Ministers, answerable to 185-seat House of Representatives. Stimulated growth of Nigerian political parties. Each region strengthened with own government and elected assembly. Stimulated growth of political parties as federal house could not over-rule regional governments but ultimately exacerbated ethnic tensions.
      • New political parties stablished representing different ethnic groups which pushed path towards independence. Further revisions of constitution and federal elections in 1954 led to new government formed consisting of 3 British with 9 ministers from various regional political parties to strike balance. More power still devolved to regional governments and following federal elections in 1959, moves made towards full independence for country in 1960.
    • EAST AFRICA:
      • Much more violent in parts of East Africa. Rapid economic growth brought urbanisation, greater political consciousness, activism, nationalist tendencies and labour disputes. During years of war, population of Nairobi increased by ½ while population of cities doubled à led to inflation, poor housing which fuelled protests.
      • British saw region as ideal for economic development, with view to generating large dollar-earning exports. Greatest symbol of aspirations was Tanganyika Groundnut Scheme of 1946. Failure of scheme provoked East African peasants into supporting nationalist movements.
      • In 1946, Britain and many countries experienced severe shortage of cooking fats. From this emerged idea of growing in Tanganyika large groundnuts which could be processed into cooking oil. Project involved massive investment of £49 million however terrain proved difficult to cultivate and scheme was abandoned in 1951, the land turned into uncultivable dustbowl.
      • In Kenya, long-simmering Kikuyu grievances at treatment by white settlers exploded into violence, when white people sought to mechanise farming and displace peasant growers. Prompted many to resort to violence and led to Mau Mau Uprising from 1952 to 1956. British crushed rebellion with great ruthlessness and divided Kikuyu people but in doing so, weakened moral authority and support for nationalists continued.
      • Tanganyika granted independence as Tanzania in 1961, Uganda in 1962 and Kenya in 1963.
    • SOUTHERN AND CENTRAL AFRICA:
      • In Southern Africa, white minority had enjoyed full control over South Africa’s internal affairs since 1931 at the Statute of Westminster. Racist Afrikaner policies dominated.
      • In 1948, Afrikaner Nationalist Party won power and implemented policy of Apartheid. Non-white people treated poorly and opposition emerged led primarily by African National Congress.
      • Throughout 1950s and 1960s, South African state responded with brutal suppression of all protests: 69 protestors killed by police at Sharpeville in 1960.
      • International opinion became critical of South Africa and relations with Britain grew strained, so far so they left the Commonwealth in 1961. Not over just apartheid but also as South Africa had pressed for Britain to hand over adjacent lands administered by British Colonial Office (such as Bechuanaland, Basutoland and Swaziland but Britain granted them independence: Bechuanaland à Botswana in 1966, Basutoland à Lesotho in 1966 and Swaziland in 1968) à British refused.
      • Britain tried counteracting South African influence by building colonial possessions in region, including Northern Rhodesia (a mineral rich copper province), Southern Rhodesia (an agriculturally rich territory with substantial white population) and Nyasaland (an economically undeveloped country).
      • During Second World War, administration of territories helped in war and came to view that joint administration would counter South Africa and Central African Federation emerged in 1953. Constitution saw some African rights given. Limited provision for African representation in new Federal Assembly but powerful nationalist movements emerged in all 3 territories led by Africans suspicious of British intentions. White governors responded fiercely by arresting and imprisoning nationalist leaders.
      • By end of 1950s, Britain had concluded decolonisation was necessary. In 1960-61, British government ordered release of nationalist leaders in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland and drew up new constitutions for territories, which paved way for majority rule.
      • In 1963, CAF was formally dissolved and in 1964, Kenneth Kaunda led Northern Rhodesia to independence as Zambia and Dr Hastings Banda led Nyasaland to independence as Malawi, after Nyasaland experienced a state of emergency in 1959 with over 200 nationalist leaders arrested in Operation Sunrise.

Southern Rhodesia had determined white settlers determined to avoid being absorbed into independent African-dominated country. In 1961, when CAF looked doomed, large section of white population switched support to new Rhodesian Front Party, which was dedicated to achieving independence for Southern Rhodesia but under white control. Won elections that year and in 1965, Prime Minister Ian Smith illegally declared Southern Rhodesia independent. British sanctions proved unsuccessful and in 1969, Rhodesia became republic and country plunged into guerrilla war.