Core Practical 6: Tests for Alcohol, Aldehyde, Alkene and Carboxylic Acid Function Group Test Procedure Positive Result Alkenes Add Bromine Water Orange to Colourless 1° / 2° Alcohol Add Acidified Potassium Dichromate Orange to Green 3°Alcohol Remains Orange Aldehyde...
Key Terminology Term Definition Stereoisomerism Isomers with the same structural formula but different arrangements of atoms in space Optical Isomerism A form of stereoisomerism where compounds have non-superimposable, mirror images. Enantiomers (optical isomers)...
Key Terminology Term Definition Aldehydes Organic compound with the group CHO, formed by oxidation of 1° alcohols Ketones Organic compound with the group CO, formed by oxidation of 2° alcohols Aldehydes and ketones are both carbonyl compounds, containing a C=O bond....
Key Terminology Term Definition Carboxylic Acid Organic compound with the group COOH, formed by oxidation of aldehydes Ester Organic compound made by replacing the hydrogen of an acid by an alkyl group Glycerol Propane-1,2,3-triol; a component of triglycerides...
Key Terminology Term Definition Arenes Hydrocarbons based on benzene Arenes are hydrocarbons based on the benzene ring, a very stable molecule. Benzene is a planar molecule, which is unsaturated but does not readily undergo addition reactions. All carbon atoms are...
Key Terminology Term Definition Amines Organic compounds containing an NH2 group, deriving from ammonia, where alkyl or aryl groups substitute for hydrogens of NH3 Amines are organic compounds containing an NH2 group. In a primary amine, one of the hydrogens from NH3...
Key Terminology Term Definition Condensation Polymerisation Production of a large molecule from reactions of monomers in which a small molecule, such as water, is eliminated. Condensation polymers involve two functional groups. Polyamide A polymer made by the linkage...
Key Terminology Term Definition Amino Acid Organic molecule that is made up of a basic amino group (−NH2), an acidic carboxyl group (−COOH), and an R group specific to each amino acid Zwitterion A molecule or ion having separate positively and negatively charged...
Key Terminology Term Definition Organic Synthesis Artificial execution of organic reactions to obtain a useful target molecule The synthesis of an organic compound can involve several steps. For the AQA specification, you are expected to be able to create a synthesis...
All halogens exist as diatomic molecules (F2, Cl2 etc…). There are some general trends you should know: Boiling Point; The BP will increase as you go down the group. Halogen molecules only possess VDW’s forces between the molecules, so therefore the stronger the VDW’s...
Key Terminology Term Definition NMR The absorption of EM radiation by a nucleus having a magnetic moment when in an external magnetic field, used as an analytical technique Resonance The flipping of nuclei between parallel and antiparallel positions 13C NMR NMR...
A transition metal is a metal atom that has a partially filled d sub-orbital in an atom or at-least 1 of its stable ions. The transition metals are as follows: However, Zn is not a transition metal as neither the Zn atom or Zn2+ ion have a partially filled d...
Key Terminology Term Definition Chromatography Family of separation techniques which separates a mixture dissolved in a solvent which moves over a stationary phase Mobile Phase The solvent which moves the soluble components of the mixture Stationary Phase Solid which...
Key Terminology Term Definition Organic Chemistry Study of compound containing carbon Homologous Series Series of compounds similar in structure, in which each member differs from the next by common repeating unit CH2 Molecular Formula Gives actual numbers of atoms of...
Key Terminology Term Definition Alkanes Saturated hydrocarbons with the maximum number of hydrogen atoms Complete Combustion Occurs in plentiful supply of oxygen, and produces only CO2 and H2O Incomplete Combustion Occurs in limited oxygen supply and produces...
Key Terminology Term Definition Halogenoalkane Saturated organic molecule with C, H and X atoms Nucleophile Negatively charged ions or neutral molecules with a partial negative charge that donate a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond Base Source of hydroxide...
Term Definition Alkenes Unsaturated hydrocarbons with a C=C double bond Stereoisomer Same structural formulae but take up different arrangements in space Geometric Isomers Occur in molecules with restricted rotation around a double bond, locking groups either side of...
Key Terminology Term Definition Biofuel A fuel derived immediately from living matter Carbon Neutrality Net zero CO2 emissions by balancing carbon emissions with carbon removal Carbonyl C=O group Primary Alcohol Alpha carbon has one R group; -OH group is at the end of...
Kinetics mainly works off of collision theory. This is the theory that, for a reaction to occur, the particles must collide with Energy (E) ≥ the Activation Energy (Ea), and in the correct orientation to one another in order to trigger a reaction. If either one of...
Chemical equilibria refers to dynamic equilibria. This means that both the forwards and reverse reactions are still occurring, but they are occurring at the same rate, so there is no net change in the concentrations of reactants or products. For a reaction to reach...
Ionisation Energy -> The enthalpy change that occurs when 1 mole of electrons is lost from 1 mole of gaseous atoms, forming 1 mole of gaseous 1+ ions (or 1+ -> 2+) Electron Affinity -> The enthalpy change that occurs when 1 mole of electrons is gained by 1...
In electrochemistry, we use REDOX and oxidation states (revise from inorganic booklet) when we deal with the half cells. Electrode Potentials: In order to measure the standard electrode potential of a half cell, we have to use a Standard Hydrogen Electrode. This has a...
Bronstead-Lowry Acid -> Proton donor Bronstead-Lowry Acid -> Proton acceptor Strong acid -> fully dissociates (Ionised) in aqueous solution Weak acid -> partially dissociates in aqueous solution Conjugate Acid -> formed when a base accepts a proton...
REDOX reactions can take 2 forms; reduction & oxidation. Oxidation is the loss of electrons (or the gain of hydrogen) whereas Reduction is the gain of electrons (or the loss of a hydrogen). You can remember this through the term OILRIG. Reducing Agents (denoted by...
Elements are classified into horizontal periods with their outer most electron in the same outer most shell. They are also classified into vertical groups with similar chemical and physical properties. However, the periodic table has its own classification of the...
Reactions with water: Na -> Sodium reacts very violently with water, fizzing across the surface of the water, releasing Hydrogen gas, and producing a strong alkali solution of NaOH. Mg -> Magnesium reacts much more slowly with cold water, producing bubbles of...
Atomic Radius: Increases down group 2 as electrons are added to energy shells further away from the positive nucleus. Ionisation Energy: Decreases down group 2, as although nuclear charge increases, electron shielding & atomic radius increase, so less...
Atoms are neutral because the number of protons is equal to the number of electrons. Ions are charged because the number of protons does not equal the number of electrons. You can calculate the number of neutrons by doing mass number (protons + neutrons) – atomic...
There are 3 types of bonding that can occur within molecules; Ionic Bonding: This type of bonding exists in ionic compounds. Electrons are transferred from metal atoms, forming positive ions, to non-metal atoms, forming negative ions. These oppositely charged ions are...
Formulae: Empirical -> Simplest ratio of atoms of each element in a molecule Molecular -> Actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule. Virtually all molecules, except for simple molecular, use the empirical formula as it is impossible to determine the...
Enthalpy Change (ΔH) -> This refers to a change is heat energy at constant pressure Standard Enthalpy Change -> Change in heat energy at constant pressure, under standard conditions Standard conditions refers to 298K, 100kPa and 1 mol/dm3 solutions Reaction...
Metallic Bonding Metal elements form giant metallic lattice structures Outer shell of electrons of each metal atom is delocalized Metal atoms become positive metal ions Positive metal ions attracted to delocalised electrons Closely packed metal ions among ‘sea’ of...
Intermolecular Forces There are three types of intermolecular force to know (in order of ascending strength): Van der Waals forces (Induced dipole-dipole) Permanent dipole-dipole forces Hydrogen bonding Intermolecular Force Explanation Increases With Van der...
Shapes of Molecules The shapes of molecules and angles between the different atoms can be predicted using electron pair repulsion theory. This uses two main principles: Electron pairs around atoms repel each other Therefore electron pairs will space themselves...
Ionic Bonding Occurs between metals and non-metals Involves transferal of electrons from metal atoms to non-metal atoms Positive and negative ions are formed Electrostatic attraction holds positive and negative ions together – this is an ionic bond Always exist in a...
Amount of Substance The Mole Definition of a mole: The amount of substance that contains as many particles as there are in 12g of carbon-12 atoms. Can also be described using Avogadro’s constant - 6.023 X 1023 (this does not need to be remembered) MR = Molar...
Covalent Bonding Occurs between non-metals Involves the sharing of outer electrons between atoms Can form simple covalent (molecular) or giant covalent (macromolecular) structures Property of simple covalent compounds Explanation Do not conduct electricity No...
Periodicity Trends across Period 3 Atomic radius decreases across Period 3 This is because across the period, the atoms have more protons and the electrons in the outer shell are pulled closer to the positive nucleus. Melting and boiling point...