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The Increasing Food Demand

Food Security

  • Food security is when people have access to enough nutritious food to stay healthy and active
  • Countries that produce a lot of food or are rich enough to import the food they need are food secure
  • Food insecurity is when people are unable to access enough food to stay healthy or lead and active life
  • Countries that don’t grow enough food to feed their population and can’t afford to import the food they need are food insecure
  • Food security is affected by food availability, food access and food utilisation
  • Food security is affected by human factors including poverty, technology, conflict, over-farming, waste and food prices
    • People living in poverty can’t afford to buy food and may not have land to grow food
    • Farmers in poverty can’t afford the resources they need to increase food production, and many are subsistent farmers
    • The mechanisation of farm equipment increases food production
    • New technologies can protect plants from diseases and increase their yields
    • Fighting may damage agricultural land, or make it unsafe
    • People forced to flee their homes have limited food access
    • Conflicts disrupt relations with trading countries and with trade routes
    • Grazing too much livestock can decrease vegetation cover and cause soil erosion
    • Intensive arable farming can use up soil nutrients and make the land infertile
    • Lots of food is wasted by people once they have bought it
    • The prices of certain foods change depending on supply and demand; when prices of staple foods rise, people can’t afford it
  • Food security is also affected by physical factors including climate, water supply, soil, pests and diseases
    • Countries with climates that are too cold or have too little rainfall can’t grow much
    • Extreme weather events also affect food production
    • A suitable supply of water is needed to grow food, so when water is scarce, livestock can’t drink, and crops can’t be irrigated
    • Depending on the quality of the soil – its stoniness, pH and nutrient content – food sometimes can’t be grown
    • Pests reduce yields by consuming crops
    • Diseases affect most crops and livestock and can cause a lot of damage if they spread through crops and herds

World Patterns

  • Food security can be measured
    • GNI/capita at purchasing power parity (PPP)
    • Percentage of population living on less than $1.25 a day
    • Percentage of household income spent on food
    • Life expectancy
    • Mortality rate of children under five
    • Average daily calorie consumption
    • The Global Hunger Index (GHI)
    • The Global Food Security Index
  • In general, ACs are more food secure than EDCs which are more food secure than LIDCs
  • The daily calorie intake of people in different countries shows the amount that people eat
    • More developed areas such as the USA and parts of Europe consume over 3539kcal a day per person on average
    • People in Canada and Russia intake 3358-3539kcal a day per person on average
    • In South America, Australasia, and parts of Africa and Asia the average intake per persona a day on average is 3000-3350
    • Much of Africa and some of Asia have an average daily calorie consumption of less than 2550
  • The GHI shows how many people are suffering from hunger or illness caused by lack of food; it is from 0 (no hunger) to 100 (extreme hunger) and countries can be divided into categories
    • ACs’ GHI is not calculated
    • Much of Asia and South America, and north Africa have a low GHI
    • South-east Asia and west South America have a moderate GHI
    • Much of Africa, south Asia and Australasia have a serious GHI
    • Parts of Africa have an alarming GHI
  • Within countries, there are variations because even in countries with a high daily calorie intake and low GHI, many people can be food insecure

Food Supply Theories

  • Malthus and Boserup both came up with theories about the relationship between population and food supply
  • Thomas Malthus was an 18th-century economist who thought that population would increase faster than food supply
    • Meaning that there would be too many people for the food available – crisis point
    • His prediction was based on the fact that population increases at a geometric rate and food supply increases at an arithmetic rate
    • He believed that when the population was too great, people would be killed by catastrophes such as famine, illness and war, and that the population would return to a level that could be supported by the food available
  • Ester Boserup was a 20th-century economist who thought that however big the population grew, people would develop to produce sufficient food for their needs
    • She believed that if food supplies became limited, people would come up with new ways to increase production in order to avoid hunger

Case Study: Food Security, Tanzania

  • Tanzania is situated in east Africa and it is one of the poorest countries in the world with a population of 51 million with 67% working in agriculture and 5% in industry
  • In rural areas, there is food insecurity
    • Overproduction can cause soil infertility
    • Drought and other extreme weather conditions can kill crops
    • Pests and diseases kill crops
    • Many farmers are subsistence farmers
  • In urban places, there is also food insecurity
    • Many people are suffering from poverty and unable to buy food
  • Tanzania is ranked 98th out of 109 countries in the Global Food Security Index with a score of 33.7 out of 100
  • Tanzania is ranked 89th out of 116 countries in the Global Hunger Index
    • Since 1991, Tanzania’s GHI has decreased overall
    • In 1991, the GHI was 43
    • It increased to 46 in 1995
    • Since 1995, it has steadily decreased until it reached 28 in 2015
  • Overall, the percentage of the population who were undernourished has increased between 1991 and 2015, however, it has fluctuated
    • In 1991, 25% of the population were undernourished
    • In 2015, 37% of the population were undernourished
    • This contrasts to Africa and the whole world which have steadily declined since 1991
  • Overall, the average calorie supply per person per day has decreased between 1989 to 2009
    • In 1989, the average calorie supply per person per day was 2283
    • In 2009, the average calorie supply per person per day was 2137
    • In 1994, the average calorie supply per person per day was 2019, and since then it has steadily increased
  • Overall, the percentage of the population living in less than $1.25 a day has decreased between 1992 and 2012
    • In 1991, the percentage of the population living in less than $1.25 a day was 72%
    • In 2012, the percentage of the population living in less than $1.25 a day was 43%
    • It had increased to 84% in 2000, however it has decreased steadily since then
  • Overall, the amount of food available has remained the same between 1991 and 2015 at 105%, but it has fluctuated massively
    • In 1993, the amount of food available went below 100%
  • Goat aid in Babati, Tanzania was an attempt to achieve food security at a local scale
    • Babati District is in an area in northern Tanzania
      • 90% of the population live in villages and depend on agriculture for their livelihood
    • Between 1999-2006, the UK-based charity Farm Africa ran a goat aid programme with the aim of improving household nutrition and income for villagers
  • After talking to villagers about their needs, Farm Africa imported Toggenburg goats at a cost of £400 each
    • In total £200 000 was invested
    • The goats produce up to 3 litres of milk a day
    • Before the goats were imported villagers were trained how to keep and care for the goats including how to treat simple diseases
  • The goats were given to small groups of villagers ‘on credit’, meaning they eventually had to repay their cost
    • The intention was that villagers would then care more for them than if they were free
  • The success of the project is debatable; those who participated in it benefited however it was too small-scale to improve Tanzania’s food security
    • In fact, poverty increased as the number of hooved animals increased; there could be a link
  • The project was somewhat successful at increasing food security on a local scale
    • In total, the profit of farmers participating in the scheme was more than double of those who didn’t participate
    • Manure could be used as fertiliser, increasing crop production
    • The male goats gave meat to be eaten
    • The milk from the goats is nutritious
    • Excess milk or dairy products from the goats were sold
    • The villagers who participated gained increased spending power which was used effectively
      • They could pay school fees which could’ve reduced some education costs to the government
      • They could pay medical bills, keeping them healthier which is necessary for the government
      • They could buy more consumer goods, increasing their quality of life
      • Additionally, they improved their homes and farms and bought more food and land
  • However, the goat aid programme was criticised
    • Goats require lots of water, which is a scarce resource
    • Goats’ hooves and grazing can damage the land and lead to desertification
    • Veterinary bills can be expensive
  • The Tanzania-Canada wheat programme, in 1968-93, was a past attempt to achieve food security at a national level
    • In 1967, the president argued Tanzania should grow all its own food
    • The need for food security became even more apparent after severe droughts in 1973-4
    • The country relied on imports for 90% of its maize and 80% of its wheat
    • In 1975, the country was relying on emergency food aid shipment for the first time
  • Tanzania asked Canada for help in growing wheat because Canada had expertise in growing large amounts of wheat using modern technology
    • Canada provided $95million in aid
  • The wheat programme covered 26 400 hectares in Hanang District in northern Tanzania
  • Canada helped to develop suitable seeds and provided expertise, training, chemical fertilisers and machinery
    • Machinery was imported from Canada and initially free, but they eventually had to pay
  • The Barabaigs are a nomadic tribe who often dwelled in the Hanang Plains; they were forced off their land
    • The Barabaigs used to graze their cattle on the Hanang Plains
    • The lakes provided one of few water sources
    • People say Barabaig villages were burnt down and the people were often raped, beaten, fined and imprisoned
    • Some say the lives of 40 000 people were threatened
  • Some say the project was a success
    • It provided 60% of all Tanzania’s wheat
    • 121 Tanzanians received training in wheat production
    • 150 mechanics gained skills in maintaining farm machinery
    • Up to 400 people worked on the farms
    • Road, rail and electricity connections were improved
    • In the 1992 drought, Tanzania was the only southern African country not to rely on food aid
  • However, others say the project was a failure
    • The yield was mostly low; importing wheat would’ve been cheaper
    • Only one crop was growing so biodiversity and soil fertility decreased
    • After harvesting, rain washed the topsoil away
    • Most Tanzanians eat maize and cannot afford bread made from wheat, therefore low-technology maize production may have been better
    • Tanzania couldn’t afford spare parts and fuel for combine harvesters and tractors so many were used for spare parts or just left to rust, unused
      • Tanzania had to buy spare parts from Canada, so Canadian manufacturers gained the most
    • Only few jobs were created
    • Food security of the Barabaigs got worse
  • The Southern Agricultural Growth Corridor of Tanzania (SAGCOT) started in 2010 and is a present attempt to achieve food security on a national level
    • It aims to improve farming in Tanzania in a ‘growth corridor’
    • This strip of land stretches from east to west and the land is very fertile
    • It is connected to the port at Dar Es Salaam by main road and the TAZARA railway
  • The Tanzanian government, foreign governments, aid agencies and TNCs are investing millions of dollars to improve infrastructure like roads, railways and irrigation
  • They want to develop a modern agricultural economy, creating six key cluster areas with better connections to national and global markets
    • This will help food security by producing more food
    • It will also earn money by selling food to other countries
  • SAGCOT has big aims which they hope to achieve by 2030
    • 75 000 small farms linked to markets
    • 2 million people out of poverty
    • 188 commercial farms in six cluster areas
    • $1140 million invested in roads, rail, electricity and water infrastructure
    • 450 000 jobs created
    • Annual farming revenues of $1.2 billion
    • Regional food security assured
  • Already, they are on the way to achieving their aims
    • China provided $39 million for improving the railway
    • Tanzania Port Authority invested $18 million in port storage and handling equipment
    • The EU is investing $4.7 million on hydroelectric generation
    • The EU invested $26 million and the USA invested $15 million for agriculture improvements
  • Food security will be improved through a hub and out-grower model
    • This will attract farmers to the six cluster areas
    • Each farm will act as a hub and improve things like irrigation, seeds, fertiliser, local transport and storage facilities
    • Small farmers (out-growers) work in their own land nearby and can also use these
    • The large commercial farms help the smaller ones with expertise and training
  • The SAGCOT project is already having a number of early successes
    • A commercial farm has invested millions of dollars in tractors, irrigation, a rice mill and storage, so the central farm of the Kilombero Plantation doubled its rice yield
    • 7300 other rice growers in 11 villages are now connected to better facilities and it has increased their rice production – some farms produced eight times more rice and all had better access to markets
    • Four developments near Morogoro have had successes
      • Two tobacco processing factories have been built, offering advice to local farmers and a market for tobacco
      • A sunflower-processing plant has increased farm incomes
      • A factory making farm equipment has increased its output
  • However, the SAGCOT project is also being criticised
    • Most of the money invested benefits large commercial farms
    • A lot of promised investment has not actually been given
    • Small landowners have not been involved in decision making
    • Nomadic tribes have lost water access for their animals
    • Some small landowners have lost land to big plantations

Sustainability of Ethical Consumerism

  • Ethical consumerism means choosing to buy goods that have been produced with minimal harm to people and the environment and it’s about how we use goods
  • Ethical consumerism can help to increase food security and sustainability
    • Reducing damage to agricultural land caused by food production, so land remains fertile
    • Making food production more profitable, so farmers can afford to continue producing it
    • Paying more money to poorer countries for goods, so poverty decreases
    • Reducing the amount of greenhouse gases emitted by transport and waste disposal, helping to limit climate changes thereby preventing decreases in food production
  • Companies who want to sell products labelled as ‘fair trade’ must pay farmers a fair price which helps them improve their quality of life
  • Food produced under fair trade schemes is ethical and sustainable
    • Buyers pay the Fairtrade Premium on top of the Fairtrade minimum price to help develop infrastructure and facilities in the area where the goods come from
    • Only producers that treat their employees well can take part in the scheme, improving the workers’ quality of life
    • There are rules about how fair-trade food is grown so that farmers must use environmentally friendly methods
    • Farmers connect to international markets and sell more products
  • Globally, one third of food produced is wasted; reducing this will make more food available, so less needs to be grown to feed people; this increases social and environmental sustainability
    • Schemes such as ‘Think.Eat.Save’ and ’Love Food Hate Waste’ encourage individuals, businesses and governments to be less wasteful with food and to compost wasted food
    • Consumers can choose food that has less packaging which reduces the amount of resources used, meaning less material waste goes to landfill, increasing environmental sustainability
  • It is important to buy local and seasonal food
    • Eating local produce reduces greenhouse gas emissions from transport, and supports the farmers in your area
    • Eating seasonal produce also reduces greenhouse gas emissions form transport during imports

Sustainability of Food Production

  • Organic farming uses natural processes to return nutrients to the soil, so that soil stays fertile and food can continue being produced
    • This includes using cows’ manure in place of artificial fertilisers and animals not being given vaccinations
  • Organic farming is somewhat sustainable
    • Organic pesticides are less effective than chemical ones and more food is lost to pests and weeds
    • The yield is about 20% lower than intensive farming so more land is needed for the same amount of food
    • Organic produce is more expensive for farmers because of the many rules
    • Organic crops may be healthier because they aren’t sprayed with lots of chemicals
    • Biodiversity increases with more crop variety, encouraging a greater insect variety
    • Organic farming is more environmentally sustainable than conventional farming
    • Organic food is more expensive than non-organic food, limiting its social sustainability
  • Intensive farming aims to produce as much food as possible in as small a space as possible
    • Farmers often use large quantities of fertilisers and pesticides to maximise crop yields
    • Livestock may be kept inside small spaces and fed with added antibiotics and growth hormones to prevent disease and encourage growth
  • Intensive farming is also somewhat sustainable, but unhealthy for the animals
    • The chemicals are expensive and must be applied annually to maintain crop yields, increasing the cost, making it less economically sustainable
    • Huge amounts of food are produced, helping to achieve food security
    • The crops are inexpensive to produce and are sold cheaply enabling balanced diets
    • Artificial chemicals can make their way into natural ecosystems and disrupt their balance, reducing environmental sustainability
    • Single crops reduce biodiversity of plants, animals and insects
    • Factory farming is means animals are kept indoors in cramped conditions and need antibiotics to reduce disease, increasing resistance

Sustainability of Technological Developments

  • Genetically modified (GM) crops allow more food to be grown in smaller areas with fewer resources
    • Genetic modification takes DNA from one species and inserts it into another species
    • GM crops can be designed to have higher yields, resistance to drought, disease or pests or higher nutritional value
  • GM crops are relatively new, so sustainability is being discovered
    • Crops will grow in places currently not suitable for food production
    • Crops could be modified to be harmful to pests and insects, reducing the need for pesticides
    • Crops could be modified to be resistant to herbicides so the weeds would be killed and not the crops
    • Food with additional health benefits can be engineered
    • Crops may not necessarily be safe to eat
    • Their pollen could be spread and contaminate other plants
    • Biodiversity could decrease
    • The TNCs producing GM crops are motivated by profit not food security
  • Hydroponics is a method of growing plants without soil
    • Plants are grown in a nutrient solution, and are monitored to ensure they receive the correct amount of nutrients, maximising crop yield
  • Less water is required than for plants grown in soil, and reduced risk of disease and pests means less need for pesticides, increasing environmental sustainability
  • However, hydroponics is very expensive, so it is currently only used for high-value crops; not everyone can afford to buy these crops, making them less socially sustainable

Sustainability of Small-Scale ‘bottom-up’ Approaches

  • Small-scale food production is an alternative to large-scale agriculture
    • It relies on individuals and communities, rather than governments or large organisation, making it known as a ‘bottom-up’ approach
  • It can help to increase food security
    • Food is grown in gardens or on balconies, so overall food production increases
    • People can grow exactly what they want and pick it fresh each day, reducing waste
    • Methods tend to be organic and non-intensive, helping to keep the land fertile
    • People are less reliant on costly imported food, helping poorer people eat healthily
  • Small-scale approaches are usually less damaging to the environment than large-scale farming methods
  • Urban gardens use spaces such as empty land, rooftops and balconies in towns and cities to grow food
    • Many are community projects, where people work together to grow food and improve their environment
    • Urban gardens make food locally available, reducing the need to transport food long distances; it’s often faster and more nutritious and can also be cheaper, improving the food security of poorer residents
    • They add greenery to cities, making them healthier and more attractive places to live, so they’re socially sustainable
    • It also makes urban areas less dependent on buying food produced by large-scale agriculture; helping make it economically and environmentally sustainable
  • Permaculture is all about sustainable food production and consumption; people are encouraged to grow their own food and change their eating habits
    • Food is grown in a way that recreates natural ecosystems, protecting the soil and wildlife, so it’s environmentally sustainable
    • It also means that the growing site is low maintenance, so food can be grown with less time and effort, increasing social sustainability
    • Food production is designed to keep soils healthy so that crops can continue to grow
      • For example, mixed cropping is used, which involves having plants of different heights and different types in one area
      • The usage of space and light is better, there are fewer pests and diseases and less watering is required
      • Using few resources increases environmental sustainability
  • Allotments are areas of land in villages, town or cities that are divided into plots and rented to individuals or small groups of people to grow plants
    • Many people in towns and cities have little or no garden, so an allotment lets them grow food
    • Like urban gardens, allotments are environmentally and socially sustainable because they allow people to grow cheap, healthy food close to home