Oceans as ‘global commons’
Domains that lie outside the political reach of any one nation state (High seas,
atmosphere, Antarctica, outer space).
Tragedy of the Commons:
An economic problem by Garret Hardin (American ecologist) – Exploitation overwhelms
supply due to all accessing the resources and wanting to maximise potential gain.
Oceanic management zones
UNCLOS:
The United Nations Convention
on the Law of the Sea.
An international intergovernmental agreement that
attempts to define the rights +
responsibilities of countries with
regard to the coastal zone +
beyond.
Signed by most countries and gives landlocked countries free right of access to + from the
sea.
Territorial waters =
Country has complete control.
Contiguous zone =
Country has sovereignty + legal rights but unimpeded access given to all vessels.
EEZ =
Country rights over seabed + water resources but sharing allowed in some situations.
All countries right to sail +fly.
Complex European region – fishing issues unresolved
High Seas =
Outside sovereignty + legal rights of single country
Certain international agreements
Ocean management issues:
• Coastal zones disputed + hard to implement
UK claims Rockfall Island due to substantial oil + gas reserves in surrounding seabed.
• Separate treaties governing other ocean uses
Laying sea-floor cables, dumping waste + fishing (30+ fishery management organisations
worldwide).
• Issues arisen since UNCLOS
Ocean acidification, bio-prospecting (discovery + commercial exploitation), deep-ocean
fishing, high seas, under-water noise potential impacts on marine life.
Resource management through international organisations
International Whaling Commission (IWC):
Organisation responsible for whale management (1946)
88-member countries + 1986 moratorium banned commercial whaling (exceptions for
culture and economy in some communities such as the Inuit of Antarctica). Still risks from
ships, net entanglement, ingesting debris + climate change impacts on prey.
Marine Reserves Coalition:
Intended to protect marine habitats + ecosystems
Important to increase ocean resilience to climate change (water warming + acidification).
International Convention on Biological Diversity committed to establishing 10% of oceans
as Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).
EU pushed for 30%, currently at 3% including 207 MPAs around UK.
Marine Conservation Zones (MCZs) ensure species can migrate + ecosystems function
naturally.
Often opposed by commercial fishermen. Cost-benefit analysis (economic vs ecological)
Coherent ecological network = resilient; can recover from disturbances of natural / human
activities, while supporting biodiversity + providing ecosystem services.
Includes core conservation areas, corridors for species movement, restoration areas, buffer
zones + sustainable use areas.
E.g. = Chagos Marine Reserve
Archipelago in Indian Ocean but UK overseas territory.
2010 ‘no take’ (no fishing) marine reserve 2 ½ x the size of the UK.
Tropical islands, coral reefs, ocean trenches, abyssal plains + seamounts
Extractive activities prohibited (some of the cleanest water + thriving marine species).
Resources effectively managed
Marine Reserves:
MCZs + MPAs increase ocean resilience to climate change (water warming + acidification) to
produces coherent ecological network.
2/5 UK coast protected.
“Blue Belts”
Aim to protect 10% by 2020, current = 3%
Cost-benefit analysis
E.g. Chagos Archipelago protected 2 ½ x size of UK.
The Arctic:
Management disputed (Russia, Canada, Denmark + Sweden)
Russian-led polar expedition planted Russian tricolour on seabed
Denmark claim control as extension of continental shelf.
Mineral wealth + increasing access via global warming for tapping + trade (global stores 1/8 oil and
¼ gas)
Antarctic Treaty:
Use for peaceful purposes, freedom of scientific investigation + results made freely available.
Large-scale cooperation (countries increased from 12 to 53).
Effective management without banning exploration.
UK Scallop Industry:
Worth £120 million.
France, UK, Belgium + Ireland depleted stocks in Bay of Seine.
France banned fleet from summer fishing showing ‘high environmental standards.’
Continental shelf + sea floor:
Rockfall Bank claimed by UK within EEZ
Unknown status to exploit ocean floor resources.
Continental shelf has no privilege for fisheries.
The High Seas:
EEZ challenge – countries have different interpretations of a nation’s rights.
China + US maritime disputes – most treat EEZ like High Seas for foreign military surveillance. China
argue EEZ closer to territorial sea (state permission necessary)
Resources ineffectively managed