Number of theories that offer explanations for gender inequalities and difference including functionalism, new right, Marxism and Weberian theory
Feminism that has provided the widest range of evidence when explaining gender inequalities
Development of Feminism
Agree that gender inequalities form the major division in society
Feminists also see gender relationships as being based on conflict and exploitation of woman by men
Share the view that much of culture has been shaped by men and neglects that contribution that woman have made in society
Feminists thinkers have tried to introduce new vocabulary in culture
The term male stream is used in place of mainstream to describe an approach where the point of view of men is taken as normal and usual
Describe the type of approach of sociological research that concentrates on men, is usually conducted by men and then assumes that the findings can be generalised to woman as well
Feminists believe that the experiences of woman have been under-studied as sociology has until recently been dominated by men
Key aim of feminist’s sociologists is to redress this imbalance by focusing on issues that affect gender relationships and the role of woman in society
Some feminists’ sociologists have devised their own approach to carrying out research and most favour qualitative methods as they enable researchers to gain a fuller understanding of woman’s experiences = ethnographic methods
Also, often keen to empower the woman taking part in the research process as they believe that woman have been oppressed in all areas of social life and they want to treat them as equals when doing research
Argued feminism can be seen as emerging in different phases of history and that each of these phases known as waves has focused on certain concerns
First Wave
Emerged in mid-1800s with main aim of reforming the social and legal inequalities affecting woman and achieve universal female suffrage
First wave of feminism was mainly led by middle class woman often known as suffragettes
Campaigning to achieve the right to vote they were concerned about the poor educational opportunities available to girls and fought better secondary education and access to higher education
Wanted to open entry to the professions for woman and to change the law that stated that once woman was married, their wealth and income became the property of their husbands
Woman at this time could not divorce their husbands unless their husbands agreed, and woman were forced to give up any contact to their children
Wanted to see these inequalities addressed
By early 1900s the first wave of feminism was seen as having achieved a number of its goals
Laws were passed that gave woman greater access to higher education
Education system was reformed to give girls more rights, so they allowed to take part in formal national examinations
Woman were granted greater access to some professions such as medicine which enables some woman to enter high-status careers
Recognition of married woman’s property rights and some improvements in divorce and child custody rights
Subsided in the aftermath of these successes through significant gender inequalities continued to exist in society and woman were still socialised to be housewives and mothers rather than paid employees
Issues gave rise to the development of the next phase of feminist activity through tone and focus was very different
Second Wave
Grew in 1960s and 1970s and was linked to other campaigns for social change such as civil rights movements, gay rights and anti-war protests
Focus is the personal is political
Refers to the view that many of the personal problems that woman experience in their lives are the result of the unequal way that society is organised
Which gives men more power over woman
This leads to woman’s oppression in the private sphere of work, politics etc…
Key issues for the second wave centred on achieving anti-discrimination policies and equal rights
Feminists aimed to raise woman’s consciousness about the problems that they faced in society so often through female-only meetings and groups that would provide support networks
These groups created a sense of sisterhood whereby woman felt responsible for each other and worked collectively to bring about social change
In UK, significant event in the second wave was the first national woman’s liberation movement conference held in 1970 which brought together many such groups:
- Equal pay for equal work
- Equal education and job opportunities
- Free contraception and abortion on demand
- Free 24hr nurseries
In 1978 further demands were added:
- Legal and financial independence for all woman
- An end to discrimination against lesbians
- Freedom for all woman from intimidation by the treat or use of violence or sexual coercion regardless of marital status
- To end all laws, assumptions and institutions that perpetuate male dominance and men’s aggression towards woman
Clear list of demands that seemed to represent the woman’s movement at this time, different strands of feminism had emerged during 1970s
Each had own views on the causes of female inequalities, relative importance of the different demands and methods that should be used to achieve the demands
Main strands were liberal feminism, radical feminism and Marxists feminism
Achieved some success but most demands were not met and divisions between the groups led to a garmented movement and second wave seemed to have lost its unity and momentum
Third Wave
Developed from the mid 1990s onwards and argued by some to be the current wave of feminism, through there is also a view of fourth wave feminism has now begun
Seen as a much more diverse and individualistic form of feminism which came into existence in the context of globalisation and an increasingly digital information society
Focuses less on laws and political processes and more on individual identity
Acknowledges that woman come from many ethnicities, nationalities, religions and cultural backgrounds
Criticises second wave feminism for expressing the interest of mainly white middle-class woman
Third wave feminists argue that they want woman to define feminism for themselves in a way that reflects their own identities and belief system
Despite this they do a distinct goal, they focus on making changes to traditional ideas about sexuality and abolishing gender roles and stereotypes including those seen in the media
Fourth Wave
Claim it is a movement that is necessary in the 21st century to take action against sexism and a range of inequalities facing girls and woman across the globe
According to Kira Cochrane (2013) it is defined by technology: tools that are following woman to build a strong, popular, reactive movement online
Claim that they use the internet to bring about change wherever they see the need by means of online petitions and direct action
They point to a number of examples of new feminist activism to support their claim that they are a powerful force in challenging sexism
- Success of the everyday sexism project which began as a social media campaign in 2012 with the aim of documenting experiences of sexism, harassment and assault to show how bad the problem is and create solidarity
- Introduction of an activism badge for girl guides under the heading go for it be the change
- Growing influence of online organisations such as mums net – a survey of mum’s net users in 2013 found that 59% consider themselves to feminists
- UK feminists’ campaign against supermarkets displaying lads’ mags
Different Strands of Feminism
Liberal Feminism
Focused on obtaining equal opportunities and equal rights for males and females in society in areas such as workplace, education and politics
Argue that gender inequalities are mainly a result of gender roles socialisation and unfair laws and practices that reinforce discrimination between men and woman rather than innate, biological differences
Liberal feminists believe that changes in the norms and values that reinforce gender divisions in society will bring about equality and they regard legislation as one way of achieving this
Point to the equal pay act and sex discrimination act as evidence of the success of liberal feminists campaigning
Oakley (1974) argues gender role socialisation in the family is an important area where gender inequality takes root from a young age
Believes that this occurs through processes such as manipulation and canalisation which teach children expected norms and values
Manipulation refers to the encouragement of behaviour that is seen as gender appropriate
Canalisation relates to the channelling of children towards toys and activates seen as appropriate for their gender
Promotes different activities between boys and girls that will teach or reinforce accepted gender behaviour
Children learn their gender identity through internalising behaviour experienced in the family
Gender role socialisation is then reinforced and developed by other agents of socialisation such as education and media
Oakley’s work has been praised for its endurance is still being able to provide explanations for gender differences that continue to be evident in society
Criticism:
- Postmodernists ideas suggest gender inequalities no longer fixed and there are a range of masculinities and femininities to choose from so no longer clear set of gender norms for children to be socialised into
Oakley’s views are out dated and lack temporal validity
- Oakley seems to regard children a passive recipients of gender roles socialisation
Argued that at least there is a process of negotiation between parents and children
Connell goes further and contend there is resistance to gender role socialisation as some children actively go against traditional gender stereotypes
Believe equality can be achieved by legal and wider cultural reforms
Agree that process has already been made and they are optimistic about further improvements in the future
Do not see men as oppressors and are usually happy to work with them to bring about change
Sharpe’s studies into girls’ priorities may be used as evidence of changing gender norms and values and also supports the view the gender roles are socially constructed rather than the product of natural biological factors
Evaluation of Liberal Feminism
Radical and Marxists feminists argue that liberal feminists fail to explain how males and females come to hold different level of power in the family and more widely in society
Radical feminists would explain this by referring to patriarchy and Marxists feminists would cite capitalism
Feminism take issue with liberal feminisms focus on reforming existing structures in society and argue that revolutionary change is needed to bring about equality
Argued that liberal feminists are overly optimistic and positive about their achievements
Critics argue that liberal feminism is a middle-class movement that represents the interests of educated, professional woman but fails to address the concerns of wider range of woman such as those from minority ethnic groups or the working class
Marxists Feminism
Social class affects the life chances of woman and it is a key factor in the relationship between men and woman
Influenced by Marxist theory but believe that it is necessary to combine these views with a feminism approach to highlight the way in which capitalism is an economic system that leads to an oppression of woman
Argue that family is a patriarchal institution and that woman’s position in the family as wives and mothers which results in them being exploited by capitalism
Society are maintained because woman is encouraged to accept the dominant ideology that the nuclear family is a natural family form and any inequalities and differences between men and woman in society are fair and legitimate
Capitalism is presented as a meritocratic system
Argues that woman play a central role in the family through their domestic labour and serve the needs of capitalism in a number of ways:
- Reproduce the next generation of workers and socialise them into the norm’s ad values that benefit capitalism by encouraging the children to be obedient and hard working
Feeley (1972) argues that the family teaches children to submit to a form of parental authority that is patriarchal
Claims they will emerge from family life preconditioned to accept their place in the capitalist hierarchy of power and control
Believes that the family is designed to teach passively not rebellion
Family socialises its members into accepting traditional gender roles and the view that it is natural for men and woman to get married and engage in separate roles and jobs in the home
Attitude that is passed down from generation to generation
Marxists feminists such as family ideology supports patriarchy since it suggests that men and woman should have different roles in the family and society that leads to the subordination of woman and men
Woman’s domestic work is unpaid, which benefits capitalism since only one wage has to be paid and the wife is then dependent upon her husband’s wage
Benston’s (1972) argues that a wife keeps her husband in good running order by feeding and caring for him and that this is essential to a smoothed running capitalism
A man must provide for his wife and children means that he is less likely to challenge the capitalist system
Believes that the unpaid domestic labour of woman helps to support the capitalist’s system
Woman were paid a wage for their work, there would have to be massive redistribution of wealth
Highly critical of the nuclear family and woman’s role within it and sees it as a stabilising force in capitalist society
Women soothe the stresses and frustrations of working men after a hard day at work
Ansley (1976) sees woman’s as a safety value and talks of woman as being the takers of shit as husbands return to home having been exploited at work and take frustrations out on woman
When wives play traditional role as takers of shit, they often absorb their husbands’ legitimate anger and frustration at their own powerlessness and oppression
Every worker provided with a sponge to soak up his possibly revolutionary ire the bosses rest more secure
Demonstrates important role that woman plays in maintaining capitalism
Woman’s unpaid domestic labour as they are available to work outside the home as a reserve army of labour for capitalism
Bruegel (1979) argues that the family is central to woman’s oppression and ruling class use woman to join the workforce when needed and send them back to the role of full-time housewife when not required
Claim the situation faced by woman in the UK and elsewhere shows woman are the ones affected by redundancies, low pay and job insecurity
Evaluation of Marxists Feminism
Tend to be criticised for placing too much emphasis on social class and not paying attention to other factors that may impact on woman’s lives such as ethnicity and age
Postmodernist thinkers are critical of the focus on class as they believe that it is no longer a significant social division
Radical feminist is critical of the emphasis on capitalist exploitation
Argue that patriarchy is more significant form of exploitation that predates capitalism and has existed in all known societies and not a capitalist’s ones
Theories have questioned the usefulness of Marxists feminism as it relies on a revolution to bring about change and that does not seem to be happening
Hakim noted that woman choose to be mothers and housewives
Over-socialised picture of woman being turned into conformists’ mothers or housewives
So little dated as it fails to consider recent changes such as genderquake
Radical Feminism
Argue nuclear family mainly function to benefit men
So main arena in which patriarchal ideology is transmitted to children via gender role socialisation
Childhood experience result in males and females subscribing to a set of ideas that largely confirm male power and superiority
Ideology encourages the notion that the sexual division of labour is natural and unchangeable
Results in the exploitation of woman as patriarchal ideology mainly views woman as sexual objects when single so mothers when married
Believe that it is patriarchy not capitalism that is the main source of oppression for woman
Argue that society is run by men and in the interest of men
Men are advantaged in every area of society and have no interest in giving up any of their power and control to woman
Believe that gender inequality is the outcome of the collective efforts of men to dominate, control and exploit woman
Tend to believe that only revolutionary change can offer the possibility of female liberation
Family is central to the oppression of woman
Argue that there has always been a gender division of labour that has served to reinforce male domination as it is men who define ideas about woman’s natural role through establishing a patriarchal ideology
Argue that there is a biological element to woman’s oppression as it is woman who carry, give birth and feed a child
Contributed to their position in society
They do not accept biological differences should mean that woman is treated unequally
Millett (1970) argues men are originally acquired power over woman as of biological factors
suggests that modern technology has provided developments such as contraceptive pill and modern machinery that have meant that men can no longer legitimate their power and domination
Believe that men are prepared to defend their power at all costs and will use violence against woman to control them and maintain their domination
Johnsons (1995) concept of patriarchal terrorism can be used to explain violence that is the result of patriarchal traditions of men right control their woman
Form of terroristic control of wives by their husbands that involves the systematic use of not only violence but also economic subordination, threats, isolation and other control tactics
Point to the level of domestic violence across the world as evidence of the broad nature of patriarchal aggression
Issue has been widely recognised and the world health organisation reported in 2013 that the incidence of woman who had experienced physical and sexual abuse from an intimate partner in their lifetime was 30% globally and 25.4% in Europe
Believe that men also use patriarchal ideology to enforce compulsory heterosexuality as a way of maintaining their control
Advocate separatism in the form of political lesbianism as a choice that woman can make to liberate themselves from men and avoid sleeping with the enemy
Second wave of feminism Ti-Grace Atkinsons stated that feminism is the theory; lesbianism is the practice
Controversial idea among feminists and led to divisions within the environment
Traditional nuclear family is also viewed as a means to ensure male dominance through female subordination to men in their unpaid domestic labour as housewives and mothers so forcing them to be dependent upon men
Delphy and Leonard claim that men engage in familiar exploitation and that the family and marriage are institutions which play a major role in the oppression of woman
They argue that men are the major beneficiaries of both marriage and family life
Woman contribute more work to family life but fewer benefits
Men exert economic power and more decision-making power
Firestone argues woman should use new reproductive technologies such as IVF to exclude men from families as she believes women’s dependence on men derives from their childbearing and child-rearing functions
Others such as Atkinsons have stated separatism or political lesbianism is the only way forward to topple patriarchy and that sleeping with the enemy should be avoided
Evaluation of Radical Feminism
Tend to talk about the family without acknowledging variations in family life between social classes and different ethnic groups
See woman as sharing common interest because they are female, but it has been argued that social class and ethnicity are important sources of inequality and difference between woman
Liberal feminism would argue that the position so woman in society has changed over time and that this is ignored by radical feminism
Have been accused of over-emphasising the factors that separate women from men
Argued that men and woman work cooperatively together in a range of ways in society, including campaigning for gender equalities
Men and woman report having very fulfilling family relationships based on more equal division of labour than previous generations = improvements happening
Intersectionality: Sylvia Walby
Offers a different and unique set of ideas that combine aspects of both Marxists and radical
Writing about feminism since 1980s and continues to write about feminists’ issues in 21st century
In 1980s, they wrote about the effect on woman of the combined systems of patriarchy and capitalism
Developed concept of triple systems of oppression which also included the impact of racism
Developed ideas further to embrace concept of intersectionality which recognises the complex interplay between different forms of social inequality including class, gender, ethnicity, religion, nationality
In Theorizing Patriarchy, she produces a detailed analysis of the concept of patriarchy which moves beyond other feminists’ views
Critic of radical feminism for seeing patriarchy as universal and unchanging
Concerned that the radical feminist approach ignores the impact of class and ethnicity on gender
Believes that Marxists feminist is problematic as it focuses on too much capitalism and fails to explain woman’s exploitation in non-capitalist society
Critical of liberal feminism as it does not consider the way that the structure of society affects gender relations
Concept of patriarchy is important in providing an understanding of gender inequality
Believes that patriarchy is not fixed and changes over time
Argues that it has evolved from private patriarchy where woman were limited to the domestic sphere of home and family to public patriarchy so woman entered the public sphere employment, politics such as continue suffer disadvantage
- Paid employment = patriarchal ideology that a woman’s place is in the home means that woman face discrimination from employers and restricted access into careers they experience horizontal and vertical segregation with low pay and low status
- The households = woman is exploitered in the family and take primary responsibility for housework and childcare even if they are working in full time paid employment
- The state = acts of interests of men rather than woman in terms of taxation, welfare rules, weakness of laws protecting woman
- Cultural institutions such as media = these represent woman in a narrow set of social roles, such as sex objects as these representations reinforce patriarchal ideology
- Sexuality = double standard is applied to men and woman and men are applauded for having many sexual partners whereas woman is condemned for the same behaviour
- Violence against woman = violence, the threat of violence and sexual assault are used by men to control woman
She also points out that in contemporary societies different groups of women may be exploited by different combinations of public and private patriarchy through the intersection of social inequalities
In her study gender transformation (1997) argues that though there have been numerous social changes affecting gender relations, patriarchy continues to exist in new forms in Britain
younger woman has made important gains compared to older woman
older woman may still experience private patriarchy whereas younger woman tends to have better educational qualifications and are less likely to accept gender discrimination at work
greater sexual freedom and are more likely to involved in environmental and social movements giving them involvement in political processes
young woman is still poorly qualified, and they be heavily dependent upon husband or they may be single parents experiencing poverty
well qualified woman finds it difficult to reach the highest positions on the occupational structure as vertical segregation continues to have a significant presence in the labour market
believes that even though young, well educated woman have made process in areas of social life, patriarchy continues to have an impact on their lives
poorly qualified young and older woman, the restrictions of patriarchy as she believes are even greater
Evaluation of Walby
Strength is that it can be viewed as improvements on other feminists’ theory as it incorporates aspects of different feminism
Developed and refined her ideas over time and she has incorporated social changes into her analysis
Stacey has criticised for over emphasising the influence of social structure on behaviour
She argues that woman negotiate such as systems and are more active than she assumes
Preference Theory: Catherine Hakim
Hakim (2006) is critical; of most feminist theories
Argues that woman are not the victims of unfair employment practices but that they have preferences and make rational choices in terms of the type of work they do
Argues that lack of affordable and available childcare is not major barrier to woman getting jobs as they prioritise childrearing over employment
Woman are not as committed to their careers as men are and inequalities in the workplace are the result of the different behaviour and attitudes of men and woman
Solid evidence that men and woman differ in their attitudes to work and labour market behaviour and these differences relate to broader differences in life goals and relative importance of family life and careers to men and woman
According Hakim, preference theory is only theory that can explain patterns and trends such as the glass ceiling and the continuing pay gap and occupational segregation
She proposes three classification of woman’s work-lifestyle preferences in 21 centuries:
- Home centred = family life and children are the main priorities throughout life for this group and they prefer not to work so 20% of woman in Britain
- Adaptive = group is most diverse and includes woman who want to combine work and family, plus drifters and those with unplanned careers who want to work but not totally committed to their career so 60% of woman in Britain
- Work centred = childless woman is concentrated here so their main priority in life is employment or activities similar in public arena
According to her the majority of men will retain a dominant person in labour market, politics etc… because only a minority of woman are prepared to prioritise their jobs in the way that men do
This theory supports the functionalist’s human capital theory as it suggests that woman is not as committed as men to paid work
Evaluation of Hakim
Heavily criticised by a number of other feminists such as Ginn (1996) point out that it is often employers’ attitudes rather than attitudes that confine woman to the secondary labour market of low paid
Ignoring the power of patriarchy to subordinate and oppress woman
Argued that patriarchal ideology has a powerful effect on shaping woman’s preferences
Functionalism
Perspective that is based on the view that society is made up of interdependent parts
Tend to argue that men and woman have separate social roles based on biological differences and these different roles contribute to the smooth running of society
Suggest that woman give birth and nurse a child and it is natural they will take care of it
Leads to a division of labour between men and woman, so woman is more involved in domestic activities such as preparing meals and maintaining a home
Men act as breadwinners and other economically dominant roles
Murdock (1949) studied gender roles in over 200 societies and found that woman is located in the home as their biological function of bearing children and because their physique meant they were less able than men to perform strenuous task
Concluded that this gender division of labour was evident in all of the societies he studied and universal as they were functional
Parsons and Bales (1955) referred to men as having instrumental, practical role while woman have expressive, caring role
Separate roles are seen as contributing to the smooth running of society, but they explain why men and woman have different experiences in labour market and elsewhere in the public sphere
Human capital theory says that the wage gap and other employment related differences can be explained by amount of human capital an individual or group of workers develop through the knowledge and skills they have obtained
Argued that personal incomes vary according to the amount of investment that is made in developing human capital
Rastogi (2002) sees human capital as knowledge, competency, attitude and behaviour embedded in an individual
Theory has been used to support functionalists’ views on meritocracy with the argument that men and woman serve different roles and functions in society
Rewarded in different ways
Men are work-orientated and committed to their jobs
Woman choose to prioritise their roles as homemakers and caring for family over their careers
Gender inequalities in the workplace arise and are legitimate outcome as woman develop lower levels of human capital than men
Evaluation of Functionalism
Feminists such as Oakley have shown that gender roles are socially constructed rather than based on biological differences
Human capital theory ignores the structural constraints in society that many disadvantage woman = Olsen and walby (2004)
Functionalists perspective is criticised as it has not kept with social changes in gender roles
Functionalism tends to refer to the experience of white middle-class people and neglects other social groups
The New Right
Developed In 1970s as political and social movement that sought to influence government policies and public attitudes
Continues to exert power in British conservative party and through the journalism of newspaper such as daily mail
A small number of sociologists who align themselves with new right ideas
Often regarded as neo-functionalism as they hold similar views
Gender relations both approaches believe gender roles are biologically determined and that men and woman should play different roles in society
Men should take roles in the public sphere of work and politics
Woman should be located within the private domestic sphere
Theories on both argue that the conventional nuclear family and gender division of roles within it are desirable and based on human nature
Functionalists and new right believe that the conventional nuclear family is essential to having a stable, ordered society and any move away from it could lead to social breakdown and disorder
Traditional gender roles are important for the wellbeing of individuals and society
Male breadwinner provides for the economic needs of the family and this means that will not need support from the state
Female housewife means male behaviour is supported and children will not suffer from material deprivation which could lead to problems later in life for them and for society
Main difference between functionalists and new right is the era in which they were writing
Most prominent period for functionalism was the early to mid 20th century when the nuclear family was seen widespread but the new right approach dates from more recent period when nuclear family was under threat
Focus of the new right is on achieving a return to traditional family values and the traditional gender roles that accompany this
They are particularly concerned in gender roles that have led to social problems such as increase in lone parents headed by woman who do not socialise their children appropriately
Argue that fundamental differences between men and woman mean that men should be the decision-makers a woman should take a subordinate role in supporting men
The new right believe men and woman will not have the same experience in public sphere and this is why there are gender inequalities
Thought the new right would tend to describe these as natural differences rather than inequalities
The New Right on Gender Roles: Schlafly’s Response to Feminism
Writing from the 1970s onwards in response to feminists demands, proposes an alternative approach to gender relations that reflects new right views
Acknowledges that marriage can be difficult but sees it as the most fulfilling roles for woman and states that marriage and motherhood have their trails and tribulations
The flight form home is a flight from self, from responsibility from the nature of woman, in pursuit of false hopes and fading fantasies (2003)
She views feminism of propaganda and argues that the primary goal of woman should be love and to be loved
Evaluation of Schlafly
Biological argument for gender-segregated roles has not been proven
New right thinkers tend to ignore the negative effects of the gender roles that they propose such as the dark side of the family
The new right approach can be seen as dated as it ignores the increasing numbers of people who choose to adopt non-traditional gender roles and report these as positive experiences
New right is accused of looking to the past for a golden age that never really existed as lone-parenting, cohabitation and extra-marital affairs existed then
Marxism
Engels is credited with putting forward the early Marxists view on woman position in society
Suggested that woman’s subordinate position is a result of the ownership of private property and the development of the nuclear family that went with it
Argued that the rise of a class-based society through capitalism brought with it rising inequality
Exploiter-exploited relationship that occurs between the bourgeoise and the working class is translated into the household in relationships between men and woman
Engels argued that under capitalism men gained control over woman as they wanted to pass on private property in a form of inheritance from one generation to the next and they wanted to be sure that the heirs were legitimate offspring
Gave rise to the ideology of the nuclear family which sought to restrict woman’s sexuality and enforce monogamy to protect male property rights
Share on interest with Marxists feminists in the role of woman in supporting capitalism through their unpaid domestic labour and their position in the world of work as a reserve army of labour
Neo-Marxist’s have developed Marxists theory beyond an analysis of social class
Argue that social structure is based on the dominance of some groups over others and that groups in society share common interests
Conflict is not simply based on class struggle and the tensions between owner and worker or employer and employee so occur on a much wider level among almost all other groups
Include parents and children, husbands and wives, young and old, sick and healthy, people of different ethnicities, heterosexual and homosexual, females and males and any other groups that can be differentiated as minority and power that they possess
From 1960s onwards, neo-Marxists sought to support all oppressed groups in their struggle for equality including woman
However, research into this area has been conducted by Marxists feminists who have a particular focus on gender inequalities
Even though he did not actually address gender and gender inequality
Evaluation of Marxism
Over-emphasising the impact of class and economic factors on gender – radical feminists argue that the oppression of woman by men was the first form of oppression
Marxists have been criticised for focusing on macro, structural issues and neglecting the small-scale interactions that provide a more valid understanding of relationships between men and woman
Marxists have been accused of creating a conspiracy theory that suggests that the bourgeoise work together to create and enforce dominant ideas such as ideology of the nuclear family – little empirical evidence to support this claim
Postmodernists would argue that Marxists views are outdated and fail to recognise the changes to gender roles that have happened over last 50 years
Weberian Theory
Identified 3 dimensions of stratification – class, status and party – it is the latter two that seem particularly useful when discussing gender inequalities
Two main types of occupational segregation:
- Horizontal segregation refers to differences in number of males and females present in occupations such as nurses and primary teachers are females whereas engineers are men
Regarded as one of the strongest influences on young people’s choice of career with individuals typically choosing occupations where they see their own gender represented
Equal Opportunities Commission (2004) identified key explanations for the continued presence of horizontal occupational segregation
- Individual differences, including human capital theory
- Individuals career choice based on their perceptions about different careers, also affected by parental influence and the influence of teachers and careers advisors
- Discrimination by employers
- Barriers within organisation
- Vertical segregation describes men’s domination of the highest-ranking jobs in both traditionally male and traditionally female occupation
Concept of glass ceiling, concrete ceiling and glass elevator are also relevant here
Glass ceiling = helps explain the difference in social mobility between men and woman since employment is a key means of upward mobility
Refers to an invisible barrier that keeps woman from achieving power and success equal to men such as moving up career ladder
Concrete ceiling = suggests the situation has worsened and it is now even more difficult for woman to reach higher positions in society
Glass elevator = refers to how men often rise higher and faster up the career ladder than woman mainly female dominate careers such as teaching and nursing
Argued that it happens due to men have a hidden advantage that assist them to get promotion including:
- Gender stereotypes that result in men being viewed as more natural leaders than woman
- The way that woman is often seen as making emotional decisions whereas men are viewed as making rational decisions
- Views about woman’s childbearing and family obligations
- Rarity of men in certain occupations, which makes them stand out and may lead to preferential treatment
Barron and Norris (1976) argue that there is a dual labour market and this concept has also been used to explain woman’s employment patterns for vertical segregation
Primary labour market consists of secure, well-paid jobs that have good promotion prospects
The secondary labour market refers to jobs with low pay suggestion is that woman is concentrated in the secondary labour market and men dominate the primary labour market
Woman are likely to experience disrupted career development
Social pressure to have a family often leads to woman taking extensive time out of employment
They lack experience compared to men so miss promotions
Weberian theory of status argued that woman is more likely than men to work in low-status jobs found in secondary labour market
Argued that woman’s domestic role as housewives and mothers is not held in high esteem in society and carries little status or power
He also used social closure to explain certain status of groups
Feminists would point out that in contemporary society this is effectively what happens in relation to gender as men reserve and protect top positions in society for themselves and exclude woman
Weberian concept of party, woman tend to participate less than men in groups that exert pressure and power in society
Evaluation of Weberian Theory
Can be applied to gender inequalities as weber neglected this area
His concepts don’t actually explain why some social groups such as men and woman end up different sectors of the labour markets and why some have more status than others
Look beyond class, the 3 dimensions that they examine are in practice, inter-related and economic power also tend to have a high standing in the community and able to use both forms of power to influence political process
Postmodernists would argue that there is no longer a consensus about what constitutes high and low status as norms and values are no longer fixed
Bradley (1996) points out the theory fails to explain inequalities in the same sector such as teaching is not a secondary labour-market, yet woman is less likely than men to gain headteacher posts